Scottish Government

6. POTENTIAL POLICY OPTIONS

Policy options for consideration

6.1 Support for universal free primary education as well as direct budgetary support, which includes education and infrastructure development, are already in hand at a significant level by other donors. Scholarship schemes such Chevening and those offered through the Commonwealth Secretariat provide funds for academically outstanding students to secure fellowships at postgraduate level as well as a specific fund for undergraduate students not in receipt of support from their government. Any potential assistance from the Scottish Government would benefit from being identifiably separate from that of other donors.

6.2 On the basis of this analysis, three broad options are proposed for consideration:

• Regional undergraduate studies;
• Vocational/professional education and training for teachers and health workers; and
• Distance learning.

6.3 Brief consideration has also been given to support for institutions as opposed to students.

Option 1: Regional undergraduate studies

6.4 Currently, the majority of scholarships available to SSA students select the academically brightest students and provide them with funding for their education in South Africa or the UK. Groups such as Canon Collins reduce this problem of selection by taking students, who whilst not necessarily of the highest calibre in terms of academic records show promise and progression through their schooling. At undergraduate level, success at university is not directly related to previous academic success (Career Wise) and this is not an inherently high-risk strategy.

6.5 This option explores the provision of education not otherwise available in country through a classic scholarship scheme. This scheme could include a needs-driven approach with those not classically represented in higher education in Africa such as women and rural communities catered for. By retaining this education in the Sub-Saharan region, such scholarship funding would have a two-fold mechanism in producing specialised graduates inaccessible in country whilst providing the much needed tuition fees for the region's universities.

6.6 Within Sub-Saharan Africa, with the exception of South Africa it is not possible to study all courses within one's own country. While some undergraduate programmes that are nationally unavailable may not be high priority subjects, the gap also includes some that are of importance for the achievement of the MDGs.

6.7 The review of scholarship schemes available to Sub-Saharan nationals showed that students, if relocated, studied in either the UK or South Africa. There is a gap in scholarship opportunities to provide a similarly strong education in priority subjects that will also enable the higher education sector outside South Africa to boost its capacity through prolonged funding.

6.8 Africans who have had the opportunity of training elsewhere in the world have demonstrated their ability to compete successfully (Council of Higher Education, South Africa. 2001). The Scottish Government could potentially use cross-boundary training as a model for higher education funding in Sub-Saharan Africa while placing less emphasis on South Africa and the UK models of higher education.

6.9 Without published quality assurance data, bias towards South African institutions for 'quality' education will need to be avoided. The emphasis could be placed on the provision of funding for regional universities through tuition fees in addition to provision of education not available within students' own countries, such as midwifery in Zambia and pharmacy in Malawi.

6.10 Historically, students were supported to study regionally those subjects that governments considered important but for which no opportunity existed within country. In many but not all cases, donor funds provided at least partial support. Examples from Malawi include forestry at Sokoine University, Tanzania. Taking this as an example, the cost of one year's study for a Malawian student in Tanzania is around US$ 6,000 (£3,000). This is around 15% of the cost of studying for a similar course in the UK, meaning that 6 students can be funded instead of one. An annual budget of £500,000 would, assuming four-year programmes, allow around 40 students each year to be supported. This is a significant number.

6.11 One possible option for Scotland could be to create a fund that supports studies within the region of subjects that are national priorities but not available within country and possibly where higher relevance can be shown. The information gathered so far suggests that, while South Africa might at first seem to be the main locus for this, there is a good diversity of courses elsewhere, for example in Tanzania and Ethiopia especially if private institutions are included. Quality and relevance are issues that would need consideration if such an approach were to be adopted.

6.12 Such a programme would have the following benefits:

• Very cost effective allowing more people to be educated;
• Maintains education within the region making it more likely to be directly relevant;
• Supports Sub-Saharan African universities through payment of fees;
• Strengthens regional links through personal and alumni contacts.

6.13 The programme would need a delivery mechanism that meets the following criteria:

• Low transaction costs for the donor and the recipient;
• Proof against manipulation to favour students from elite families;
• Transparent allocation process but with opportunity to focus on students from disadvantaged groups, including options to give additional support to those with, for example, caring responsibilities;
• Need to provide administrative and pastoral care, noting that there would be pressures for families to accompany some students on such a scheme;
• Opportunity to negotiate for each country which programmes would be eligible ⁴ and to review this periodically;
• System of incentives to ensure students returned to their country [but not necessarily to government service] on completion of their studies, making allowances for opportunities for further study by exceptional students could potentially reduce the problem of brain drain (see the section on Brain Drain later).

Option 2: Support for vocational education and professional development

6.14 For the purposes of illustrating this option, the examples of Malawi and Ethiopia are used and the case made for support to teacher and health education and training. However, the problems are not confined to Malawi and Ethiopia, similar patterns are to be found in most Sub-Saharan African countries.

6.15 Examples from Ethiopia and Malawi illustrate the scope and size of the problems encountered in attempting to deliver education services and suggest a strong case for supporting teacher education. Both countries have high birth rates. In Malawi, the population increases by 2% per annum and in Ethiopia the figure is 2.1% (World Bank Data & Research 2006). The age range of the populations is skewed: longevity is short and therefore the pressure on educational services is higher than in countries where the age range is more evenly balanced. Simply providing enough teachers to keep up with the rise in the school population is a resource-intensive task, particularly when both countries but particularly Malawi, suffer from high HIV infection rates. In Malawi about a third of all teacher departures are thought to be due to HIV related terminal illness ( EFA Global Monitoring Report, UNESCO 2008).

6.16 The Growth and Development Strategy ( PRS) for Malawi sets an overall goal of achieving universal quality primary education and increased access and improved quality with gender parity in post-primary education. While the introduction of free primary education (1994) greatly increased enrolment rates (Gross enrolment rate 122.3), drop out is high with a completion rate of 57.4% (World Bank, Data & Research 2006). Girls are particularly disadvantaged at secondary and higher levels of education with less than one-third participating in tertiary education.

6.17 A recent report summarised the problem of teacher education "many primary school children are taught in overcrowded classes by unqualified teachers and have to share very limited teaching/learning resources", 15% of primary teachers are classified as untrained and the average pupil/teacher ratio is 71:1, only 14% of secondary teachers are qualified for the level they teach in community day secondary schools (Educational Development Division 2006).

"Many classrooms in developing countries, especially in poor and rural areas, possess one text book, typically in the hands of the teacher. Students spend most of their time copying the content from blackboards to notebooks and then memorising it. In numerous African countries between 25 and 40 percent of teachers say they possess no book or guide for the subjects they teach."
Global Monitoring report, UNESCO, 2008, page 15.

6.18 In Ethiopia there is a similar picture of over-crowded classrooms, high pupil teacher ratios, gender inequalities and pressure on teacher education. Just over half of primary school teachers are qualified to teach in the upper stages of the primary schools where they are employed and only 40% of secondary school teachers are qualified (Ministry of Education 2004/5). The Ethiopian Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty ( PASDEP) argues for intensifying pre-service and in-service training and the use of distance learning.

6.19 In both Malawi and Ethiopia there are strong urban /rural differentials in provision of health and education services. Rural areas where the majorities in both populations live (82.8% and 84% respectively) are less well served than urban areas ( UNDP Human Development Report 2007/8).

6.20 A strong case can also be made for investing in the education and training of health workers, as the statistics in Table 11 below emphasise.

Table 11 Basic Health Statistics

Sources: World Bank 2008, UNDP, 2007/08

6.21 Whilst technical expertise in medicine is extremely valuable, many of the heath problems faced by people living in rural areas of Ethiopia and Malawi have to do with health education and prevention. For instance, diarrhoea among babies is often fatal but can be simply treated by oral re-hydration. In Ethiopia, for instance, health extension workers are being trained to deliver basic sanitation and hygiene, immunisation and reproductive health and HIV education services (Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty, Ethiopia 2007).

6.22 Investment in training traditional birth attendants ( TBAs) to enhance their skills in assisting with deliveries and extend their education to take on other duties could make a significant impact on the extremely high infant, child and maternal mortality rates. In Ethiopia, 1,100 midwives and 3,000 health extension workers are needed to meet existing requirements. This figure does not take into account expected losses from the existing workforce or allow for improvements of service. PASDEP sets as a target the training of 30,000 new health extension workers. The skills gaps identified in teacher and health education are used as an example of a potential policy option. It is likely there are other skills gaps that this vocational education and professional development option could target but this would require further research.

6.23 Such a programme could have the following benefits:

• Meet real educational needs within country-led poverty reduction strategies.
• Target potential students who do not generally have access to education, for instance TBAs are women.
• Make a real impact on poverty reduction and the Millennium Development Goals.

6.24 The programme would need a delivery mechanism that met the following criteria:

• Use a flexible educational mechanism that can be delivered in traditional institutions but also in workplaces in rural areas.
• Focus on building institutional support as well as supporting students, for example, training TBAs may require new curricula.
• Focus on professional aptitude and commitment rather than academic excellence.

Option 3: Distance learning including a potential partnership with the Open University ( OU)

6.25 Central to the problems of higher education and training is the lack of institutional capacity. Fewer than 0.5% of Malawians aged 18-23 are enrolled in the tertiary sector and for Ethiopia the figure is around 1% (Malawi Education Sector Policy & Investment Framework 2001). Entrance to higher education is extremely competitive because there are so few places. In both Ethiopia and Malawi higher education is free but there is no capacity to support more students ( SDNP, Education System in Ethiopia, SDNP, Education System in Malawi).

6.26 The prioritisation of primary education and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals has to some extent deflected attention and resources from higher education.

6.27 Distance learning is one way of overcoming the problems of lack of capacity. The New Partnership for Africa's Development ( NEPAD) argues that investment in information and communication technologies ( ICTs) can assist in accelerating economic growth and bring unprecedented comparative advantage to the continent. This report specifically cites the use of ICT in establishing "regional distance learning and health education programmes to improve the situation in the health and education sectors" ( NEPAD 2001).

6.28 Distance learning through correspondence courses is well established in Sub-Saharan Africa. Many such courses were based in the UK but there are also national correspondence colleges. The evidence available during this scoping study suggests that some distance learning correspondence courses are good, whilst others are poor and there is no recognised system of registration and accreditation. For example, there is an ongoing dispute in Malawi over Karonga Polytechnic claiming to be part of the University of Malawi (University of Malawi 2008).

6.29 Using buildings through a double shift system is also an approach of long standing at schools in Africa. The University of Zambia has adopted this in its parallel learning degrees, which require attendance in the late afternoon and evening. Many African universities are becoming involved in developing and/or delivering distance learning packages.

6.30 As the case study on the OU shows, there is potential for funding individual scholarships for existing, 'traditional' OU courses and the examples of the MBA in Ethiopia and the Masters in Development Management are given. However, distance learning also has advantages for meeting the needs of new and existing health and education workers in Africa. It can overcome some of the problems of capacity of the institutions and also the barriers of access experienced by some students. The investment in the institutional capacity is in the infrastructure to support distance learning.

6.31 Distance learning also has the potential to overcome barriers of remoteness and exclusion. Courses could be made available in rural areas and for groups of people who would normally find access difficult. For instance, people from marginal ethnic groups who are more likely to be poor and to be excluded from mainstream education, people with disabilities and women who find it difficult to study away from home because of child-rearing and family responsibilities.

National Teacher Institute - Nigeria
The National Teachers' Institute ( NTI) in Kaduna, Northern Nigeria is a TESSA partner that works to address the urgent need for qualified, teaching staff at all levels in the community through the use of distance learning ( TESSA - Teacher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa is a consortium of 18 universities and is led by the OU).

In some programmes teacher students meet on a weekly basis to discuss the course and the materials they are using in the classroom and share experiences. The NTI plans to use TESSA in a national CPD programme with 145,000 teachers starting in August 2008. Overall in 2008, TESSA will be used to train half a million teachers across sub Saharan Africa.

6.32 In the experience of the OU, distance learning can also help retention of qualified staff. The evaluation of TESSA ( TESSA Progress report 2005-2007) shows that teachers who receive training and education are motivated by the process, make contacts and gain support from other teachers through the workshops and group sessions which form part of the learning package and are therefore less likely to consider moving on.

6.33 The costs of distance learning are competitive. The initial set up costs can be high but once the systems are established, costs per student are much lower. For example, the OU has recently estimated how much it will cost to translate and culturally contextualise the materials into Amharic for use in Ethiopia. These costs plus two workshops for Ethiopian teacher trainers to learn how to construct and use materials will amount to £70,000.

6.34 Health Education and Training in Africa ( HEAT) is currently at the pilot stage. Costings have been done for a two and a half year long project for Ethiopia which will train Ethiopian academics to contextualise and translate the Open Universities current health educational materials for the distance learning programme, adapt the infrastructure already established for the MBA programme for health and pilot the materials and the workshops with health extension workers. The OU is seeking funds for this: a total of £950,000. Courses potentially offered include Health Sciences, Nursing, Health and Social Care and Paramedic Science.

6.35 Malawi is not yet a TESSA partner but links have been established with the education faculty at Mzuzu University and an application for funding made to develop distance learning materials to support teachers working in science and mathematics.

Support for individual students

6.36 The remit for this research suggests that the Scottish Government may wish to fund individuals whilst at the same time helping to build capacity in Southern institutions, as opposed to bringing students from Africa to the UK. Although it is more straightforward to consider a potential partnership with the OU within the framework of institutional support, there is also potential for funding students.

6.37 For example, funding could support individuals taking part in TESSA or HEAT with computers, or a loan scheme for students undertaking distance learning. This could include payment for travel, accommodation and subsistence costs for students attending workshops associated with the course or perhaps a professional placement in another school or area to spread learning and share experiences. There is scope to innovate with forms of funding distinctive from the 'normal' confines of a scholarship scheme.

6.38 To ensure that funding reaches the most disadvantaged, a scheme could set criteria for candidates that might include gender, ethnicity, disability or rurality. Research shows that schools with female teachers have higher rates of gender parity ( UNESCO 2008). Other conditions could be set to address, for example, the obligation to share learning gained with other students, other institutions or areas. Building in a 'multiplier factor' would increase the overall impact of such a scheme. There could be the potential to provide other incentives such as the payment of a small grant to the institutions of successful students. These are options not presently used within Sub-Saharan Africa to LTS' current knowledge but could potentially address problems such as brain drain.

Management and potential problems

• Need to identify and negotiate with institutions and the governments of countries selected. This could be a lengthy process.
• Administrative costs of providing funding to students may be quite high because it would involve more than simply allocating a grant.
• Selection procedures would also have to be negotiated with the institution(s).
• Monitoring and evaluation would be complex and involve more than an assessment of academic results.

Potential benefits

• Meeting identified needs of developing countries within the context of their PRSPs.
• Cost effective - a large number of students could be reached.
• Building capacity in institutions as well as individual students.
• Capable of being targeted on students that find difficulty in accessing education and training.
• Higher retention rates because students are working within their own communities.
• Potential to make a real impact on development.

Other issues for further consideration

Support to institutions

6.39 This is very costly and would almost certainly be too expensive for Scotland to support even one institution at the level necessary to make any impact. It could therefore be more appropriate to leave this to larger donors.

6.40 It is also cogent to note that without intensive prior study, support to one of the many deserving higher education institutions in the region could be open to misinterpretation as a type of validation. Scotland does have a long standing historical link with Malawi but support to one institution even in that country could be divisive unless great care were taken over its selection and the selection process determined through a very transparent system.

University Faculty Support
Makerere University in Uganda was a highly regarded institution in the 1960s to the extent that its postgraduate teaching certificate was the only one offered outside Scotland to be accepted by the Educational Institute of Scotland. The University suffered badly during the Obote and Amin eras. Its forestry faculty was supported by Norway after independence but the political collapse of Uganda led to relocation to Tanzania.

The forestry faculty at Sokoine Agricultural University, Tanzania, is now regarded as one of the best in Africa apart from Stellenbosch, South Africa; these two institutions have different areas of expertise. Through staff secondments, support for capacity building and infrastructure development a high calibre faculty has been created at Sokoine but it took decades and even now, 40 years later, there is still a small amount of support being given from Norway.

6.41 Link arrangements between UK and universities in LDCs are still ongoing but while in vogue in the 1980s, this approach has been rendered very costly by universities needing to move to full overhead recovery systems as well as problematic by heavier teaching commitments from e.g. taught Masters programmes.

The Brain Drain

6.42 The issue of brain drain needs to be explored further. The loss of well-trained and skilled academic staff from Africa to mainly Western Europe and the USA is devastating for these universities. The World Bank estimates that some 23,000 academic and similarly qualified staff are emigrating from Africa each year in search of better working conditions (Blair & Jordan 1994). The need to retain graduates potentially supported by the Scottish Government would, therefore, need to be addressed in any scheme, possibly through trust based compliance schemes.

6.43 The Human Resource Development Initiative states objectives for reversing the brain drain, which will require immediate strengthening of the university system across Africa by building on available African teaching staff. By retaining graduates in the region this loss of intellectuals may be reduced - means of doing this could include an incentive-type system, a bonus system, a trust-based system, the alumni system and/or a mentoring system.

Table 12 Relative Purchasing Power of Government Salaries in Malawi 1970 to 2000

Source: Evaluation of Finnish Forest Sector Development Co-operation. LTS International 2003

6.44 Table 12 above shows the annual salary of Malawi civil servants of a range of grades adjusted for relative purchasing power. Research by LTS International in 2003 found that while salary differentials have narrowed, the loss of earning potential for degree holders goes at least some way to explaining one of the main drivers of the brain drain. Salaries offered in other countries in the region (such as Namibia or Botswana) are much closer to 1970 equivalents while those from international agencies or from positions in the developed world are many times local salaries and offer a very attractive lifestyle opportunity. Until such time as countries can offer their civil servants salaries that allow a reasonable standard of living within their home countries, the problem of the brain drain is likely to continue.

6.45 There is obvious advantage in professionals working for short periods in other countries but the long-term loss of skilled human resources is a different issue. Given increasing concern over the "brain drain" from developing countries, including those in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Scottish Government would need to include consideration of this in deciding how best to support higher education. The situation is not, of course, one that applies only to Scotland. The options proposed are ones that are generally supportive of people remaining in country and/or the region following their sponsorship.