Scottish Government

ANNEX 4: INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON

Introduction and Background

1.1 The objective of this international comparison is to produce a case study of Australia's English as a Second Language ( ESL) provision, the background and language needs of learners, the different types of provision available and the policy responses to increased migration in terms of provision (nature, scale of availability, quality, fee contribution). The aim is to gain further information on this country's experience of migration and provision of ESL, for comparisons with the Scottish system and to identify examples of good practice.

1.2 Before selecting Australia a number of other countries (New Zealand, United States, Canada, Ireland, Sweden, Netherlands, France, Germany and Spain) were considered. Various factors were taken into account such as their migration history, openness to different types of migrants, degree of language need of migrants, policy on citizenship testing and availability of ESL or equivalent provision. Australia was selected for comparison for the following reasons:

• similar demographics and policies driving migration as Scotland;
• comparable policy initiatives to address migrants' language needs;
• plans to put a citizenship test in place; and
• availability of ESL equivalent provision.

1.3 Australia shares many similar characteristics with Scotland, having an aging population and recent growth fuelled by migrants and refugees from a wide variety of countries where English is not the first language. Policymakers are concerned that increased migration is necessary to cover costs of public services. It is the stated policy of both major political parties to encourage high levels of immigration to increase labour force participation. Australia's overall migration numbers have steadily increased over the past decade and currently stand at around 150,000 migrants a year. Of particular relevance to the Scottish case is the fact that legislation to introduce a citizenship test is currently going though parliament.

1.4 Although around 6 million hours of adult English language tuition are provided each year through publicly funded initiatives in Australia ³⁸, current government programmes are not necessarily meeting the needs of these populations and a number of barriers remain to making ESL available and accessible. This will be described in more detail below.

Methodology

1.5 In order to undertake the comparison, qualitative interviews were conducted with a range of individuals involved in the provision of English language tuition to refugees and migrants. These were direct providers in a public, private or voluntary capacity, stakeholders, policymakers, an industry organisation that offers teacher training, a teacher and academics who provided an analysis of demographics. The list of those interviewed is in Table 1.1. Eleven interviews were conducted and the topic guides for the interviews are available at the end of this annex. To supplement the interviews, a literature review of relevant policy documents was also conducted.

Table 1.1

Demand

1.6 The following section provides an overview of current and potential demand for ESL provision through an analysis of immigration patterns.

Migrant groups

1.7 Migrants to Australia fall into 4 main categories:

• skilled migrants which account for the largest single group and around two thirds of the intake, around 100,000 per year;
• humanitarian refugees, capacity to accept 13,000 per year but usually less;
• family reunifications which are approximately 35,000 per year;
• international students a total of around 400,000 in 2006 (although only a proportion of these would have English language needs).

Of these 4 groups, skilled, humanitarian and family reunification migrants are all entitled to free English language tuition, as are their dependants, under the government sponsored Adult English Migrant Programme. However, those entering under the skilled migrant programme are required to have a minimum level of English of IELTS. ³⁹

1.8 International students are generally enrolled in fee-based private language classes. Informal voluntary sector provision is available for all groups. Most are looking to improve their English with a view to having improved job prospects in their home country or gaining entry into a university course. International students may also progress to attain permanent residency, and potentially citizenship, as a skilled migrant. 52% of skilled migrants are former international students. ⁴⁰ Students are typically from Asian countries: Japan, Korea and Taiwan, Thailand and China. They tend to be aged 20-30 and about 75% are female. They usually have university training, intermediate level ESL and are interested especially in improving their speaking and conversational ability.

Immigration trends

1.9 According to the 2006 Census the number of people who were born overseas increased by 13% between 1996 and 2006 from around 3.9 million to 4.4 million (although their proportion of the total Australian population remained the same at 22%). The two largest overseas-born groups are those born in England (19% of all overseas-born) and New Zealand (9%). China overtook Italy as the third largest birthplace group (each country accounting for around 5% of all overseas-born). Between 1996 and 2006, the size of the European-born population in Australia decreased. The Asian-Australian community includes more new entrants with 27% (of 1.2 million) having arrived since 2001.

1.10 A number of Australia's recent arrivals were born in countries recently affected by war and political unrest. Over 73% (or around 14,000) of Australian residents born in Sudan had arrived in 2001 or later. Similarly, a high proportion of the populations born in Zimbabwe (48% or 10,000 people), Afghanistan (45% or 7,000), and Iraq (34% or 11,000) had arrived in 2001 or later. Australian policy allows the country to accept up to a maximum of 13,000 refugees a year but in reality, because of the very strict set of eligibility criteria, that figure is rarely met. In many cases this group has extremely low or no English ability and it is frequent for refugees from some countries to have no literacy in their own language.

1.11 Stakeholders involved in supporting new migrants and language learners commented that they have observed a definite increase in migrant numbers in recent years and that the nature of migration has also changed. In particular, there have been increases in those with lower levels of English language skills, including those with literacy issues, with resultant increases in demand for basic but intensive ESL provision. This is particularly related to the increased numbers in humanitarian and family reunification migrants entering Australia.

1.12 The settlement patterns of migrants in Australia tend to be particularly concentrated in the large cities of the east coast. 36% of all migrants go to Sydney and another 28% go to Melbourne ⁴¹. Brisbane and Perth are other popular destinations. In Melbourne in particular there is a considerable Vietnamese community and in Perth a Chinese community and an increasing number of African settlers. Sydney has areas of heavy concentrations of Vietnamese and Lebanese migrants. ⁴²

1.13 Refugees coming to Australia tend to be placed in large urban areas in state capitals and less so in rural parts of Australia, with family reunification migrants tending to follow the settlement patterns of existing migrant communities. Skilled migrants also gravitate towards cities where high-skilled jobs are more readily available. Increasingly however, government policy is looking to locate migrants in rural areas. The Department of Immigration and Citizenship's website particularly encourages potential migrants to consider rural Australia and provides information on jobs and accommodation. Programmes to attract new arrivals to locate outside of cities may be particularly relevant to those in refugee communities. One stakeholder pointed out that many African humanitarian migrants have highly developed agricultural skills but these are not recognised in the cities where they are placed.

Level of demand

1.14 An analysis of immigration trends and the nature of that immigration indicate that there is increasing demand for ESL provision. Approximately 150,000 migrants come to Australia each year who are entitled to free ESL provision, and this figure is rising ⁴³. Two thirds of these migrants do not have English as their first language. 2004-05 data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics show a large majority of all categories of migrants self-identify a need for English tuition: 83% of humanitarian entrants, 66% of family entrants, and 62% of skilled entrants. ⁴⁴ This number calculates to around 100,000. The demand is for a variety of levels, from highly skilled migrants who already have a competent level and require more specialised, advanced teaching to humanitarian and family reunification migrants with extremely poor or no English ability, with potential literacy needs in their own language.

1.15 Demand has been concentrated in state capitals, however if government programmes are encouraging migrants to consider rural areas, it is likely that there will be increased demand in those regions which do not thus far have a consistent, established migrant support infrastructure. Migrant representative groups have expressed the hope that this may in many instances assist their integration, but patchy provision in rural areas is one of the key gaps at present.

1.16 The issue of international student demand is somewhat more difficult to attempt to quantify. International students are not classified as migrants because they have temporary residency and are not entitled to any state services including the Adult Migrant English Program ( AMEP). Additionally, as much of the international student provision is funded and delivered through the private and voluntary sector, its delivery structures are not standardised or regulated in the same way as public provision.

Supply

Adult Migrant English Programme

1.17 The main source of English language tuition is the Adult Migrant English Program ( AMEP) which is funded through the Department of Immigration and Citizenship ( DIAC) for migrants and humanitarian entrants who do not have functional English. Some private and voluntary sector provision is also in place.

1.18 In 2004-05, there were 36,208 reported participants in the AMEP, and stakeholders calculated this figure at above 40,000 in 2007. The main source countries of participants are China, Sudan, Vietnam, Iraq, Lebanon, Afghanistan, Thailand, South Korea, Turkey and Indonesia. The AMEP provides at least 510 hours a year of free English tuition to migrants or refugees settling in Australia and who have been granted a permanent visa, are at least 18 years old and speak little or no English. Refugees aged under 25 or who have had less than seven years of schooling can obtain 910 hours of English a year, refugees over 25 are entitled to 610 hours and skilled migrants can have 510 hours. Those who have special needs, such as those who may have had difficult pre-migration experiences are eligible for additional support. As well as teaching English, the AMEP also allows students to learn about Australian society, culture and customs.

1.19 As one stakeholder commented:

" we have an amazing system, we can cope with the demand, the system works in every city and the integration is good here. The easy access to ESL is good for this."

1.20 Provision is free for up to the maximum number of hours or until the student reaches functional English, whichever comes first. For skilled migrants who require a higher level of more specialised English to pursue their professional career, an additional 800 hours of free language classes are available though Department of Education funded programmes.

Funding and fees

1.21 The Department of Immigration and Citizenship awards AUS$ 155 million worth of funding to AMEP providers each year. AMEP courses are given by local service providers (which are normally community or further education colleges or universities), who tender for five-year contracts. Currently 13 contracts are in place to provide tuition in 250 locations. Funding is awarded for the five year period but can be reviewed and amended on a rolling basis to allow providers to deliver in a demand-led way. AMEP learning institutes also have access to the government funded National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research ( NCELTR) specialising in curriculum development. English levels are certified to recognised levels through the AMEP using a qualifications framework.

1.22 Other types of provision are through the private sector which is primarily for fee-paying international students, and the voluntary sector which tends to supplement either private or AMEP tuition. Voluntary sector provision may be free or on a low-fee basis. The voluntary organisations that we spoke to were funded either by churches or individual donations.

Quality Assurance and Continuing Professional Development

1.23 All AMEP teachers and the curricula they use are accredited by the Department of Immigration and Citizenship to assure the quality of provision. The National English Accreditation Scheme ( NEAS) is tasked with monitoring programme inputs and undertaking a yearly audit of each centre. Aside from curriculum delivery, NEAS monitor and certify centres on their ability to provide additional support services to learners ( e.g. counselling, childcare). The continuation of contracts with service providers is contingent on their successful monitoring and approval by NEAS.

1.24 Private ESL tuition can also be accredited by NEAS. However one voluntary sector stakeholder suggested that private classes tended to be disproportionately concentrated on grammar and writing rather than pronunciation and conversation which are what students really need to learn to integrate in Australia. Religious and community run voluntary sector courses tend to operate without a fixed curriculum and as such are not endorsed by NEAS.

1.25 AMEP teachers are required to have post-graduate qualification in ESL (which is also monitored by NEAS) and they continue to participate in further skills development throughout their career. AMEP run a professional development programme through the NCELTR consisting of regular free training which teachers are expected (although not required) to attend periodically. Issues that CPD has recently focussed on include teaching students with low literacy and language learning for employment purposes. Training courses can be provided either online or face-to-face and are founded on and developed through extensive research. Training is also supported by a website with comprehensive curriculum resources. The training of teachers by the NCELTR dovetails with CPD provided by individual learning institutes with teachers who have been on national courses encouraged to cascade their knowledge to colleagues.

Voluntary and community providers

1.26 Both voluntary and community sector providers interviewed for this project commented that they experienced teacher shortages and did not have sufficient venues to provide all the necessary ESL tuition demanded. To counteract this, some providers were constantly recruiting teachers to accommodate increasing demand, while others were filling their classes, often with higher numbers than they felt was useful to provide adequate instruction. There were also some that maintained waiting lists.

1.27 Voluntary tuition is accessed both by those who are eligible and ineligible for AMEP. For those who are eligible, voluntary tuition may be provided in a more flexible or accessible way than AMEP. It is used by others as a top-up to AMEP and some students may avail of both public and voluntary provision. Similarly, international students who are ineligible for AMEP may make use of voluntary provision either as a substitute or a complement to private lessons.

1.28 Voluntary and community providers were more likely to offer flexible provision. As many new migrants work very long hours or possibly have a number of jobs and are not available during the day to attend classes, some voluntary and community organisations were providing weekend courses to allow students to attend at more convenient times. Additionally, some organisations offered free meals, transport and childcare. As a result, in some cases learners preferred to attend voluntary and community organisations than AMEP courses.

Impact of Citizenship test

1.29 Australia has recently introduced legislation to establish a citizenship test requiring aspirant Australians to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of English language and Australian values, culture and systems. It is not intended to test applicants separately in English language skills but the test will be in English and a reasonable degree of proficiency in the language will be required to study for and pass it.

1.30 According to polls, there is significant support for the citizenship test amongst native Australians but considerable debate amongst migrant communities about its implications. Concerns focus particularly on potential disadvantages that would be imposed on those who do not speak English as a first language, who have significant barriers to learning English (such as literacy issues) and those from poorer income groups who would find it more difficult to access additional learning. As one stakeholder commented:

" it will create a disadvantage in the population, as some groups will find it difficult to pass, for example refugees and asylum seekers as they are disadvantaged."

1.31 Furthermore, some stakeholders believe that it will be difficult to gain the level necessary to pass the test.

" It is impossible to go from a minimal to a proficient level of English to be able to learn what is necessary to sit a test within two years".

1.32 Already the AMEP includes modules on citizenship and additional resource material to prepare migrants for the citizenship test is being developed. Given the extensive provision of language teaching already in place by the government for aspirant citizens, it is not clear that the introduction of the citizenship test would have a significant impact on demand. However, the Department of Immigration and Citizenship has noticed an increase in AMEP participation in the last 6 months, since the possibility of a citizenship test becomes more certain, and anticipate that this will continue to increase. Officials are also concerned that they will be under pressure to deliver more hours of language training to enable migrants to pass the citizenship test. ⁴⁵

Barriers to availability and accessibility of ESL

1.33 Despite the extensive provision of ESL and considerable efforts to ensure good quality teaching of AMEP, there are a number of barriers some learners face that inhibit the availability or accessibility of ESL.

Literacy issues in own language

1.34 Low native language literacy skills and low levels of previous education can cause significant barriers to learning English. In Australia these issues are of particular concern with learners from refugee backgrounds as well as women from some migrant backgrounds. Family members tend to learn more quickly where at least one member of the family has a higher level of education. One stakeholder commented.

" One of the main barriers for asylum seekers and refugees is they are often illiterate in their own language and find it too difficult to learn, I know of people that have accessed the 510 hours and still cannot spell their name. It is a huge barrier."

1.35 Some organisations are attempting to overcome these issues with intensive tuition and one-to-one classes. Providers recommended major investment in pre-literate education as being the key to integration in the long term. Other stakeholders suggested putting in place pre-departure familiarisation and education programmes for refugees before they get to Australia. Often refugees do not know what to expect and can take a very long time to adjust to the new environment.

Lack of childcare

1.36 Many migrants looking to access English language tuition in Australia have young children and have difficulties attending language classes that do not also provide childcare. This is the case especially with refugees, many of whom are from households headed by a single parent. Some AMEP centres provide childcare but usually only up to kindergarten age. Some voluntary sector organisations provide family centred services and teaching children English at the same time as parents to fill this gap.

Lack of transportation/long distances to learning centres

1.37 Many new migrants, particularly refugees, may not have access to public transportation. Depending on the location, employment and learning centres it may be difficult for some migrants to physically access provision. Lack of funds to travel and inability to negotiate public transport can compound these difficulties. In rural areas, distance and transport barriers are even more significant, as one stakeholder commented.

" If they are living and working in small town the nearest centre is 30-40 miles away and if they don't have a car or can't afford petrol distance is a barrier, because there are fewer courses in rural areas."

1.38 The government is attempting to overcome this through the Rural and Regional Intensive Programme which funds one-to-one accessible tuition in regional centres. Some voluntary sector organisations actually collect and drop off all students before and after courses.

High costs of classes

1.39 For those who are ineligible for free AMEP tuition, primarily international students, the cost of private ESL tuition can be prohibitively high. The provision of free classes by churches and community organisations compensates for this gap to some extent. This issue is not of major concern to the Department of Immigration and Citizenship as all learners who they deem are eligible are entitled to free provision.

Lessons for Scotland

1.40 This review indicates that there are a number of aspects of the provision of English language teaching in which Australia is particularly effective. Specific lessons which could be applied in the Scottish context include:

• maintaining high quality teaching and curriculum standards through a centralised monitoring and accreditation agency;
• facilitating statutory providers to adjust supply in accordance with changing patterns demand;
• focussing statutory provision on those who need it most and who are likely to remain; and
• recognising the added value of voluntary sector provision where it can complement statutory and private tuition.

1.41 Central to the maintenance of high quality teaching across the extensive network of AMEP and private providers is the standardised and regulated system of teacher training. The requirement of AMEP teachers to have post graduate qualifications further indicates how seriously the concept of teaching quality is taken. Bringing together monitoring both curriculum and teacher standards under the auspices of the NEAP the synthesises brings about quality assurance at various levels. In contrast, in the voluntary and community sector provision, teacher training is hugely variable and unregulated. This is exacerbated by the significant level growth in demand by which has led some voluntary and community providers to take on additional volunteer teachers without being in a position to provide them with training.

1.42 One of the most successful elements of the AMEP has been its ability to respond quickly and effectively to changing patterns of demand (although this is less evident in rural Australia). AMEP providers must guarantee that students have a class available within four weeks of enrolling and therefore are not permitted to have waiting lists. This demand led system is facilitated by the five-year, renewable, funding cycles that are administered in a flexible way. This allows providers to plan ahead with some level of certainty over their funding but also to adapt to local needs. Voluntary sector providers have also adapted well, to increasing demand, using various mechanisms although in some instances, this has compromised the quality of provision.

1.43 Publicly funded tuition is particularly focussed on those who need it most. At least 510 hours of tuition are afforded to new migrants, with additional provision for those who have had limited previous schooling. Migrants, including family members of skilled migrants, are tutored to the point where they have functional English. No free statutory provision is available for temporary international students. This structure of provision clearly targets limited resources on particular groups, to learn to a specific level, investing in the integration and labour market potential of those who are most likely to stay in Australia. The provision of additional, specialised free tuition to skilled migrants through the Department of Education indicates a slightly different focus of this funding stream - education for skilled employment as much as integration.

1.44 The very nature of voluntary sector provision is that it is flexible and responsive in overcoming barriers but it is less well placed to offer curriculum based, exam driven provision by qualified teachers. However, the added value of voluntary sector provision is indicated by the fact that this sector is experiencing difficulty in meeting demand and evidence from voluntary sector providers indicates that these providers can act as a valuable supplement to structured and standardised teaching through the AMEP.

Conclusions and comparisons

1.45 In many ways, the characteristics of learners in Australia and Scotland and their motivations for migration are broadly similar although the nature of migration is significantly different. It appears that humanitarian migration is a much bigger issue in Australia than Scotland, where recent increases in migrants have been largely fuelled by EU expansion. Conversely, Australia is an independent island state which only allows free movement of workers with neighbouring New Zealand where English language needs are not a factor. This allows Australia to have more control over the number of migrants that are accepted into the country and plan service provision accordingly.

1.46 However, despite this, as in Scotland, Australia has a degree of mismatch between supply and demand, particularly outside major urban centres and in providing flexible solutions to meet learners' needs. Learners in Australia experience a number of the same barriers as those in Scotland in terms of accessing classes such as distance, lack of transport or childcare and inconvenient scheduling.

1.47 The continued increases in numbers of migrants, as well as the potential upward push on demand with the introduction of a citizenship test, are likely to test the existing AMEP model. There remain gaps in what AMEP is delivering in terms of how appropriate the offer is for the needs of learners such as in terms of the timing, amount of hours and location of classes. Although AMEP learning centres are encouraged to provide flexible teaching and additional facilities for students, it appears that in many cases the voluntary sector is more successful in this regard. Whereas public provision does not appear to be suffering from a serious lack of supply, voluntary sector providers are stretched to their limit. Voluntary sector provision however, is not consistent or standardised across the country and does not offer quality assured teaching. A key challenge will be to integrate the strengths of both types of provision, potentially through partnerships.

1.48 Australia also appears to be well developed in providing citizenship teaching as standard part of the AMEP offer, even in advance of the introduction of the test. This contrasts with inconsistent provision of citizenship modules in Scotland, where the citizenship test already exists. The standardisation of provision across Australia is enabled by the streamlining of funding from the Department of Immigration and Citizenship and the existence of benchmarks and accreditation by a nationally funded body.

1.49 The flexible nature and time scale of the contracts with learning centres facilitate the accommodation of additional students as demand fluctuates whilst retaining a level of certainty about future funding.

1.50 The brand of AMEP is underpinned by approved high standards in teaching. This is enabled by both the curriculum development and teacher training institute to which all AMEP centres have access, as well as the robust monitoring and accreditation of centres by an independent organisation. This allows students to gain qualifications which are known and accepted by employers. But AMEP is an expensive policy to deliver costing, on average, approximately AUS$ 4,000 per student, per year. However, policymakers claim that the investment is worth it because of better integration and improved labour market opportunities which reduce costs to the state in the long run.

1.51 There is an extensive, established migrant support infrastructure in place of which English language provision is the cornerstone. Services are free for users and open to all permanent migrants. Refugees, as the most vulnerable migrants, are immediately enrolled in classes. Additional targeted support is available for those with less than seven years of education, who most need it and for skilled migrants who need specialised tuition.

TOPIC GUIDE - INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON

Background Info

Name of organisation
Name/title of person interviewed
Year established
Core objectives/activities

General Background

What are the different types of ESL learners in Australia? What are their reasons for coming to Australia?

Is there a certain geographic spread of different types of learners? Are there areas of the country where learners may be concentrated?

Has there been a recent increase in migration? If so, what is this due to? Has this increase impacted on the need for ESL?

For Community Organisations

What is your main role in the community?

Who are the main community groups you serve? (Probe status-refugee, asylum seekers, new immigrants, age, ethnicity, gender, any other characteristics)

Where do the main community groups you serve live in Australia?

Do you refer them to other agencies for specific services? If so, which organisations and why?

What are the ESL needs of your community? What levels generally do your members need ESL for?

How frequently is language identified as a barrier to employment amongst your community and others?

For providers

What levels are these courses at ESL Literacy, Pre-Elementary, Elementary, Pre-Intermediate, Intermediate, Upper Intermediate, Advanced, Proficiency?

Are these mapped against any nationally recognised qualification levels?

Are your courses accredited?

Do you have entry requirements for learners who wish to take ESL?

Do you have waiting lists for the provision that you offer, how long are they? How long have you had waiting lists?

Have you had to provide extra courses to meet demand?

Who are your courses pitched at? Is it a certain type of student or level of ESL? Why? Probe re: market in their catchments.

Why do your students decide to take ESL classes? What do they aim to get out of the classes? Is it for employment purposes, the UK citizenship test, other?

Do you charge a fee for any of your courses? If not, are there fees associated with your courses for exams?

If you do charge a fee, do students usually pay for the courses themselves? If not, who pays for them? How much are your courses? What does the fee cover?

Do you partner with other organisations to deliver ESL?

Accessing ESL FOR ALL

Do teachers/tutors of ESL require specific qualifications to teach ESL? Are there any specific requirements for ESL teachers?

Do you provide any Continued Professional Development/Training for ESL teachers and/or your staff that works with learners? If so, please explain.

What are the main barriers faced in accessing ESL provision? For community groups: Are you working with any other organisations to address these barriers?

Which groups do you think have the most language barriers? Is there a difference between more skilled/professional and traditionally unskilled?

Do any groups find it relatively easy to access ESL and some groups find it more difficult? Which, how? Explore gender/age/ethnic sub-group as well as skills differences.

To what extent does literacy in own language impact on the ability to effectively undertake ESL? Which groups does this affect most? Are ESL courses structured?

Do you feel there are issues related to the quality of provision? Is it tailored to the needs of different groups? Has quality changed over the last few years?

Are disability issues encountered? Is this an issue that ESL learners face? If so how is this barrier to their ESL learning

Do the learners in your community usually pay for ESL classes? If not, how are the courses funded? Would any group pay?

Are their sufficient ESL courses available? What are the specific gaps in provision? Probe… age, gender, where from… etc

Impact of Citizenship Test

What impact do you think the implementation of a citizenship test will have on the demand for ESL?

Will people want to take the test? Will there be certain groups that will be more inclined to take it than others?

Have you seen a change in the need for ESL over the past few years? Has there been an increase or decrease in demand?

If there has been a change, why do you think that is?

Have you had to make any changes to the provision you offer, change eligibility criteria, course levels, course types to meet this demand?

Do members of your community want to take the UK Citizenship Test? If so do they need ESL to be able to do so?

Additional

What do you think works well when offering ESL provision?

Are you able to suggest a contact that we could speak to regarding policy issues in Central Government. Is there any one that you feel we should speak to?