Chapter Two Definitions of enterprising skills and attitudes
In this section we look at how enterprising skills and attitudes might be defined. It is important to note that while there is an apparent consensus at a general level, this does not translate into an agreed and shared set of specific definitions.
We consider first the evidence of the benefits of enterprise education, from which we can extract implicit definitions of enterprising skills and attitudes. We then draw on explicit definitions from three areas: policy documents; research and evaluation reports; and materials produced to develop enterprising skills and attitudes. We have produced a matrix (at the end of this document) to show the overall pattern of descriptions of enterprising skills, attitudes and behaviours.
In this matrix we examine various existing measures, and identify whether enterprising skills and attitudes are dealt with specifically, not specifically or are not covered at all.
There is a general consensus across most young people, teachers, parents, employers and local and national policy-makers that enterprise education is a 'good thing' for the individual. It is thought to represent a successful approach to developing skills relevant for employment and for life in general. It can give scope to creativity, develop individual talents and create employment and wealth. Amongst other things it is thought to encourage the ability to work with others, improve communication skills, responsibility, decision making, problem solving and informed risk-taking, as well as leading to increased confidence. It is claimed that teaching and learning in enterprise education not only enhances the learning of desired cognitive and social skills, but also has a positive effect on pupil motivation and attainment.
Explicit definitions of enterprising skills and attitudes
There are well-established lists of core skills, employability skills and enterprise skills from a variety of sources, local, national and international. Some of these are contained in local and national policy statements; some are contained in reports on research and evaluation in this area; and others are included in enterprise in education delivery packs and materials.
Policy documents
The National Framework for Education for Work (Scottish CCC 1999) identified the following important skills, including 'core skills'
- Communication: oral communication (speaking and listening), written communication.
- Numeracy: using graphical information, using number
- Problem solving: critical thinking, planning and organizing, reviewing and evaluating
- Using information and communication technology
- Working with others
In addition , the following positive dispositions are identified: teamwork, achieving quality, continuing education and training, health and safety at work, equal opportunities, the environment, views, skills and capabilities of others, change, service to others, dealing with customers.
Personal qualities considered important include self-awareness, self-esteem, self-motivation, self-control, initiative, determination, confidence, and a sense of responsibility.
There is currently [2004] no specialist curriculum guidance on enterprise education.
HMIe, in cooperation with others, is currently developing new Quality Indicators for Enterprise in Education which will provide a framework for schools as they seek to become more enterprising environments and help their pupils to develop enterprising skills and attitudes.
The OECD document Towards an Enterprising Culture: A Challenge for Education and Training (1989) identifies enterprise learning as a project or task-centred process which produces outcomes additional to the gaining of academic and/or vocational knowledge and/or experience, for example in the form of greater understanding of the values and benefits of being enterprising, for the individual and/or society more generally.
Research and evaluation reports
Early consideration in Scotland of what pupils might gain from Enterprise Education activities included an evaluation of the Primary Enterprise programme in 1990/91. This indicated that:
- pupils had grown in confidence, had learned to identify their own and others' strengths and weaknesses, and had taken responsibility for their own decisions
- many pupils developed and displayed new skills eg organizing themselves and others and dealing with adults effectively many pupils had been given the opportunity to display previously unrecognized qualities and had gained from personal satisfaction and peer group status
The Centre for Education and Industry ( CEI: Warwick University, 2001) was commissioned by the DTI to research and identify a set of attributes, skills and behaviours essential to the development of an entrepreneurial workforce. Their research identified the following sets
- Attributes: self-confident, autonomous, achievement orientated, versatile, dynamic, resourceful
- Skills: problem-solving, creativity, persuasiveness, planning, negotiating, decision taking
- Behaviours: acting independently, actively seeking to achieve goals, flexibly responding to challenges, coping with and enjoying uncertainty, taking risky actions in uncertain environments, persuading others, commitment to make things happen, opportunity seeking, solving problems/conflicts creatively.
They state that 'there is little doubt about the connection between these qualities and employability'.
The CEI definitions echo the views expressed in the 'Attributes of Youth' report (Anderson Consulting, 1998), where the attributes identified as important were enthusiasm, initiative, honesty, commitment, positive attitude, adaptability, flexibility and willingness to work. While a small minority of employers saw qualifications as the most important attribute, many more mentioned communication and interpersonal skills as top priority in potential employees.
These closely match the key attributes of enterprising people which were identified earlier by OECD (1989 p36). These include the ability to be positive, flexible, confident, at ease with risk and uncertainty, creative, responsible and an effective communicator, influencer and organizer.
An earlier literature review of the characteristics of the entrepreneur (Caird, 1991) noted that these were many and broad-ranging. These include a need for achievement; need for autonomy; need for power; dedication; creativity; decision-making; confidence; goal-setting; innovation; problem-solving; planning; risk taking; responsibility acceptance, inner locus of control; and insight.
The Evidence Report from Determined to Succeed notes that the contribution of enterprise education to the development of enterprising attitudes skills and behaviours was through: development of confidence, discovery of new abilities, strengthening of communication and inter-personal skills, improved ability to resolve conflict, increased willingness to take responsibility and greater understanding of how business operates. The evidence which was provided for the Determined to Succeed review also suggests that taking part in enterprise activities encouraged positive attitudes towards business generally and towards entrepreneurship.
Delivery packs and materials
Recent resource materials created for Careers Scotland have placed an emphasis on the assessment of knowledge and understanding, skills and attitudes which should be assessed, although it is clearly stated that 'it can be more difficult to assess specific enterprise skills and attitudes'. A more general picture of what should be assessed is documented in the Teachers' Guide for each set of materials.
- Knowledge and Understanding: of the context of the enterprise project, of the organization and management of the project
- Skills: enterprise skills such as teamwork, problem solving, decision making and leadership
- Attitudes: to the context, to self and others, to business, to employment and self-employment.
The Changemaker programme in England (1999) has produced a set of workbooks which focus on what is identified as the 14 enterprise skills which are 'key to enabling young people to develop skills relating to employability, citizenship and lifelong learning'. This supported study programme aims to improve young peoples' motivation, build self-esteem, help them become more effective learners and raise attainment. The 14 skills which they consider to be important include; working effectively in a team, assessing strengths and weaknesses, seeking information and advice, making decisions, planning time and energy, carrying through responsibilities, developing negotiating skills, dealing with people in power and authority, solving problems, resolving conflict, coping with stress and tension, evaluating your own performance, using communication skills to give and take feedback, developing presentation skills. This list also has links with citizenship and employability.
The CITY programme in South Australia (1998) identifies twelve enterprise skills which include assessing strengths and weaknesses, seeking information and advice, making decisions, planning time and energy, carrying through agreed responsibilities, negotiating, dealing with people in power and authority, problem solving, resolving conflict, coping with stress and tension, evaluating performance and communicating.