Chapter Five Discussion
The review of strategies to address gender inequalities was designed to provide feedback on four key aspects:
- the extent of and key factors in gender inequalities in Scottish schools and how these relate to the international context;
- current policies and strategies to address inequalities in Scottish schools;
- the perceptions and views of pupils, teachers and managers in schools on the impact that inequalities have on self-esteem and confidence, aspirations and choice within and beyond the school system; and
- examples of where strategies have been effective in addressing gender inequality issues across the school sector.
These are considered in turn.
5.1 Gender inequality and Scottish schools
The review of the literature indicated that much of the concern over gender inequality in achievement, personal development (including self-esteem and behaviour) and career options is as relevant to Scotland as to the other countries discussed. Statistics from the Scottish Executive indicate that, as elsewhere, girls tend to outperform boys in most areas assessed through national qualifications and assessment programmes, with particular strengths in literacy. While girls are more successful in aspects of primary and secondary schooling, this is not reflected in higher education statistics, nor in later career achievement figures. Other issues which have been highlighted in the research as being current in Scottish schools include participation in particular subject areas; gender stereotyping and careers choice. In respect of the last of these, key issues for the career achievement for women include the extent of, and limitations of, part-time working and low pay compared to men.
5.2 Current policies and strategies
In the majority of local authorities and schools involved in the study, it was reported that gender was one of a number of factors of potential inequality addressed through broader inclusion policies, rather than an area for specific action. The local authorities' views on what was happening at school level did not always match the reality in the schools. For example, although some authorities indicated that all schools should have policy statements, they frequently did not. A very small number of authorities provided guidance for schools on addressing gender in the context of learning, teaching and achievement.
In the schools visited, most reported that they were guided by the authority's inclusion policy, although a few had their own, local policy. Where there was a school-focused policy, it tended to be in relation to the development of specific strategies, e.g. single-sex classes.
Overall, there was no discernible pattern in authority or school policies with regard to the issue of gender in schooling. If it was acknowledged explicitly, it tended to be one of a number of factors to be addressed within the inclusion agenda. The implementation of strategies was, in the main, a response to local 'problems' such as boys' underachievement or a lack of appropriate male/father role models. The principal area of concern within schools was that of boys' underachievement, particularly with regard to reading and, more generally, literacy. This reflects the differential performance levels identified in national and school-level statistics.
Attempts had been made to address gender-related performance and behavioural issues through single gender classes, with mixed results. In boys-only classes, behaviour management was frequently cited as problematic, confounding attempts to improve achievement and motivation and to raise aspirations. The use of girls in mixed classes to 'police' the behaviour of the boys was seen by some as detrimental to girls' performance and aspirations.
Where strategies with a gender dimension had been implemented, an important feature was the extent to which the whole school was supportive of, and involved in, the initiative, and how leadership was provided. In secondary schools it was not usually the headteacher who had instigated the development, but rather a member of staff, usually in a post of some responsibility, who was interested in gender issues - a champion within a department or with specific responsibility in a related, cross-curricular area, e.g. learning and teaching. In primary schools, where good practice was observed, the headteacher was often responsible for the original initiative. Longer term sustainability seems to depend, however, on the development of whole school approaches. Ideally, for continuity and progression, the involvement of all schools within a cluster, including pre-5 establishments, would be desirable.
In one instance, the education service was working with other agencies such as social work and community education to develop a family-oriented approach to tackling traditional, stereotypical roles and improve children's life chances. Given the relatively small proportion of a child's day-to-day existence spent in school and the strong influence of the family and wider community in the socialisation process, including the development of gender identity, this would seem to offer a greater chance of success in the long term, albeit more demanding of the agencies and resources. However, innovations, other than the most trivial kind, take time - and changing attitudes to gender is not a trivial matter.
5.3 The views of school staff, pupils and parents
i. Awareness of gender as an issue
There was an almost universal view amongst those staff interviewed that gender was a pertinent issue in the context of schooling. For most, gender was one dimension, albeit a significant one, of a more complex cluster of factors including social background, ethnicity and culture - as in most of the available policy-related documentation received. School staff held diverse views on the importance of gender as an issue, from those who were actively working to address gender-related issues to those who felt that it 'had been done'. It was, however, a very small number of teachers who expressed the view that gender had been addressed in the 80s and 90s and that things had moved on - that gender was no longer an issue.
While gender was acknowledged as a factor affecting pupils' educational experience, there was also evidence of uncertainty as to the best ways to address it. Broadly speaking, the primary and pre-5 sectors were more active than the secondary. Whereas, in previous years, gender inequalities had concerned secondary schools ( e.g. gendered subject profiles), it was those working with the pre-school and early primary years who were the most active. They tended to see it as a whole person issue, rather than tackling one aspect such as literacy or behaviour, and aimed to develop aspects of self-esteem and confidence in all children, including those on the margins of what might be described as stereotypical views of being a boy or a girl.
Pupils were particularly aware of gender. Girls were of the view that boys got more attention, and both groups thought that girls were better learners than boys. Even amongst the youngest children interviewed, there was already evidence of stereotypical views of what constituted 'boys' or 'girls' activities, in school or in later life. However, some children were prepared to challenge these. In order to break down some of the barriers that result from stereotypical images, children should be encouraged to reflect on and challenge such stereotypes - and to consider whether they really reflect what happens within their own families.
Parents tended to think that gender was not as important as achievement - and most did not seem to see a link between the two, although some parents were concerned about issues relating to perceptions of underachievement by boys.. They were rarely aware of any specific strategies to address gender inequalities operating within the school but tended to be more concerned that it was, broadly speaking, a 'good school'. The overall ethos was more important. Parents tended to be more aware of, and involved in, gender-related strategies in the pre-5 and primary sectors than in the secondary, where achievement and behaviour were the key issues.
It is easy to forget, in all the discussion on gender inequalities, that, broadly speaking, boys and girls tend to be more similar than different in a range of characteristics such as attitudes, abilities, dispositions and behaviours.
ii. Strategies to address gender inequalities
Strategies identified by authorities and schools were intended to address perceived differences in achievement, behaviour, self-esteem, confidence and career aspirations. The literature identified a danger in adopting a strong stereotypical identity as the model of the male pupil in selecting resources, teaching styles and reward systems. Such approaches are typified by contexts traditionally associated with boys (action adventures, football and machinery), by requiring short concentration spans and changing the pace of activities. While this may be effective in managing those boys who conform or aspire to such a model of masculinity, it ignores, if not disadvantages further, those boys who do not. Neither does it address the issue of whether this is an appropriate, accurate or even helpful image to promote in schools, either for girls or for the wider community.
There was little evidence of specific strategies to address gender inequalities in vocational education through, for example, support for pupils to pursue non-traditional subjects or career choices.
iii. Staff development and research
Most local authorities identified at least one gender-related strategy adopted by a school or schools in their area, but few indicated that any staff development had been undertaken prior to its implementation. However, staff in several of the schools visited had attended seminars and workshops on themes that included aspects of gender, such as differences in learning styles. These had been delivered by external consultants and their practical advice had been valued and adopted in various ways. Some of those interviewed had followed up the sessions with personal research, were knowledgeable about some of the key literature and were working to address issues within their own classroom or institution, guided by what they had learned.
5.4 Effective strategies to address gender inequalities
Fullan (2005), in reviewing a number of large-scale initiatives, identifies a series of characteristics that contribute to effective strategies for change and, importantly, sustainability. These include:
- the acknowledgement of poor performance and the need to seek solutions;
- a focus on improving practice and achievement;
- the development of a system-wide framework and infrastructure to support innovation and change;
- distributed leadership (so that sustainability is not dependent on a 'champion');
- the availability of relevant, useful professional development; and
- the recognition that change takes time.
Together, these characteristics can be summed up as accountability and capacity building. Accountability refers to the need for systematic data gathering, monitoring and evaluation, while capacity building supports those involved in acquiring and developing the requisite skills, understanding and dispositions to bring about change. While Fullan's analysis was based on studies of large-scale, often national, developments, these characteristics also have relevance for an analysis of the strategies investigated here.
In this study, most of the strategies investigated had some of these characteristics, but few, if any, had all. The first, an acknowledgement that things were not as they should be, or could be, was evident in all instances - as was the second. All case study schools and authorities were concerned at performance levels ( e.g. examination results), behaviour statistics ( e.g. exclusion rates) and/or subject choices. A decision had been taken, at some level, to introduce changes in structures and/or practices at specific stages, or institution-wide.
The third characteristic, the development of a system-wide framework and infrastructure, was rarely witnessed. In some instances, such as in some schools using the 'bags of books or 'story sacks' approach, there were insufficient resources for it to make a real impact on children's reading habits or there was limited monitoring of any impact. In other areas, a lack of consistency and/or coherence led to a degree of disillusionment. In one of the case studies, for example, a few pupils were concerned by the inconsistent ways in which a reward system was implemented by teachers, but this was a minor concern and the programme was making a significant impact on pupil motivation and aspirations throughout the school.
Where initiatives are introduced without clear parameters and a supportive framework, the impact on the pupil's experience is fragmented and the potential unrealised. In addition, initiatives need to be sustained over a significant period of time, with consistent messages being conveyed.
The case study, 'Reach for the Stars', demonstrated the impact that distributed leadership can make. The other, larger initiatives also showed this characteristic and, in the authority-driven initiative to raise self esteem and confidence in pre-5 and early primary pupils, ownership of some elements was handed over to participants once they had been shown to work and were considered relatively stable.
For change to be effective, teachers need to operate from a position of informed professional judgement (Barber, 2002). While many of those interviewed made reference to educational consultants, researchers and theorists, this was rarely as the result of targeted staff development events on gender-related differences and their implications for learning and teaching. Examples of good practice observed by the researchers were often down to individual teachers' own interests or experiences, but were not always underpinned by a deeper understanding of the issues. The literature indicates that gender, and its impact on performance, behaviour and life chances, is complex and multi-dimensional. In addition, it intersects with other factors to the extent that simple one-dimensional strategies are rarely effective.
Change takes time, especially where the aim is to change deeply entrenched attitudes and culturally determined patterns of behaviour. The evidence that there are gender-related differences in the ways that boys and girls experience and benefit from schooling would appear to be compelling - addressing these inequalities requires coherent, inclusive policies and gender-sensitive practices to be developed and sustained throughout the educational careers of children and young people.