A STRATEGY FOR SCOTLAND'S COAST AND INSHORE WATERS
2. UNDERSTANDING THE CHALLENGES
KEY ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH THE USES OF SCOTLAND'S COASTAL ZONE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
There are many different facets to Scotland's coastal and inshore resources and developing integrated management means understanding and dealing with this diversity. This section looks at the main uses of Scotland's coastal zone on a sector-by-sector basis and at the key coastal management issues associated with each. This is a summary of more detailed work which can be found in Annex 1.
The geographic focus varies according to the topic. Some issues, like coastal defence, relate most strongly to the coastline itself. Others, like commercial fishing or oil and gas, relate more to offshore locations. Some, like recreation and tourism, are relevant to most areas of Scotland. Others, like aquaculture, are more concentrated in certain regions of the country. The reality for most areas is however overlapping interests and this is where integrated management has a role. Ways to develop this are indicated for each sector. Whilst each sector is different in its own way, certain common themes emerge from this appraisal. These are discussed at the end of the section.
Developing more integrated management in Scotland's coastal zone also means learning from experience - both here and abroad - to understand some of the obstacles and to identify elements of good practice and working models which can inform the new approach. This is the focus of section 3. The aims and objectives which form the core of the strategy, and which are set out in section 4, flow largely from these two assessments.
The uses of Scotland's coast and inshore waters fall into five main groups:
activities which exploit the biological productivity of the sea (eg fishing and aquaculture);
use of coastal and marine areas for their aggregate and mineral resources, power generating capacity, or transportation capabilities;
the management and use of natural and built heritage assets (ie tourism and recreation, conservation, archaeology);
use by the military for operational bases and training;
physical management of the coastline itself (eg to control erosion) and management of water quality.
Whilst these various uses operate largely in parallel there are often linkages between them either through impacts or inter-dependencies. For example the way in which sea fisheries are exploited can impact on marine nature conservation (and vice versa) and it depends to an extent on port development (and vice versa). These interactions tend to be most obvious close to the coast but they may also occur at some distance offshore. Sectoral management systems have historically tended to downplay these cross-sectoral linkages but integrated management systems acknowledge and address them more explicitly. There is an economic rationale for this as well as a matter of principle. Benign interactions tend to add to the total sum of wealth whereas conflicting interests tend to limit or diminish it.
ACTIVITIES WHICH EXPLOIT THE BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY OF THE SEA
2.2 COMMERCIAL FISHERIES
The Scottish fishing industry has two contrasting faces. The North east coast and Shetland contain the major concentrations of large-scale, offshore fishing capacity. The West coast, by contrast, is characterised by inshore fishing activity. Here the fisheries sector is dependent on a relatively low volume of landings which are of high value. It is at the regional and local levels that the industry makes its most significant contributions to the economy. The Northeast contains the greatest concentration of fishing employment in the UK and a substantial share of associated industries such as fish processing.
Commercial fishing, despite its traditional importance, is however, a declining sector of the Scottish economy, reflecting in part the deteriorating condition of key whitefish stocks. There continues to be a mismatch between fishing effort/capacity and the available fish stocks which hinders restoration of the key resource on which the industry depends. This has resulted in declining employment and incomes in fisheries-dependent communities.
The challenge is not just to help the industry survive, but to lay the foundations for a return to prosperity. This will require a longer-term view of fisheries management than has been practiced to date - one that takes the pressure off key stocks in the short term to allow them to recover and rebuilds them to levels which can support higher and sustained catches. There is also a need to reduce conflict within the fisheries sector and between the fisheries sector and the growing range of other users of Scotland's coastal waters. Among other things, this means:
creating opportunities for diversification out of fishing;
managing competition between fisheries and other users of the coastal zone, such as aquaculture and offshore renewable energy generation;
addressing the lack of integration between the planning and operation of fisheries and other users of the coastal zone;
reducing conflict between fisheries and biodiversity/natural heritage interests.
There are also concerns about the ability of the current system of management and enforcement to meet the needs of the fishing industry and stakeholders whilst promoting sustainable fisheries. The main issues are:
the regulatory system is seen to be complex, unfit for purpose and remote from the needs of local stakeholders (fishermen);
lack of resources and quality data for management, monitoring and enforcement;
how to balance local management aspirations with the industry's traditional expectations of Government;
enabling the fishing industry and wider stakeholders to have more of a say in fisheries management decisions.
Key coastal management tools for delivering these aims and, more generally, moving towards sustainable fisheries in Scotland would be:
stakeholder involvement in management through the establishment of regional management committees - these would represent fisheries interests in the relevant coastal management fora and decision making processes. They would also develop proposals for inshore fisheries management in consultation with other stakeholder groups. These fora would have a key role in conflict resolution and building consensus on appropriate inshore fisheries management measures;
marine spatial planning - to establish priority-use zones for activities like fisheries and aquaculture and identify area-specific objectives in a more rational way. This would give fishing interests security of tenure in key areas and allow forward planning on a more integrated basis taking into account the need to safeguard the natural productivity of the coastal environment;
development of management systems which incorporate a long-term and ecosystem-based approach, including fisheries restoration areas and no-take zones.
2.3 MARINE AQUACULTURE
Aquaculture has been an important force for economic development in the Highlands and Islands since the 1980s and it has helped to sustain or rejuvenate many remote coastal communities. Its cultural impact has also been important in that it has brought a shift in emphasis in the way we use our marine resources: from extensive capture fisheries to intensive culture and environmental management in selected areas. It has also however, been controversial. This is because it has sometimes displaced or appeared to threaten certain other interests and the planning and regulatory framework has been slow to develop. Marine aquaculture, perhaps more than any other industry, provides a rationale for ICZM because its activities straddle the coast and near-inshore waters and impact on a range of other interests.
The finfish farming industry has concentrated mainly on salmon production to date but the long-term prospects for species diversification, technical innovation, and market growth are good. Shellfish farming has traditionally been less capital-intensive and the pattern of ownership more localised but this too is changing as the industry seeks to harness economies of scale and tap into volume markets. As operation in more exposed sites becomes feasible, and with more sophisticated systems for managing nutrient budgets and water quality, the aquaculture presence is likely to extend across a wider area of Scotland's inshore waters - including those off the East coast - over the next 25 years.
The salmon farming industry grew up in the sea lochs of the West Highland coast and around the Northern and Western Isles and the bulk of its investment continues to be in these areas. However, these are some of the most unspoilt coastlines in Europe and they are highly valued for their landscape and wildlife interest and the outdoor recreation opportunities they provide. This imposes significant constraints on fish farm development. Also the small wild salmonid populations in the generally short, West coast rivers are inherently vulnerable to changes in their environment and intensive fish farming in close proximity can present various risk factors.
The main issue is therefore:
There are subsidiary issues here in relation to identifying the scale and type of activity appropriate in different areas, and the development of sites further offshore or off mainland coasts other than the West coast. There is also a need to improve the modelling capability for prediction of environmental effects and to develop lower-impact designs for
aquaculture installations so that a wider range of locations and higher production levels may be feasible and sustainable. Other key issues relate to the design and implementation of the new statutory planning system for marine aquaculture, and the need for better protection for the aquaculture industries from harmful algal blooms (HABs).
Scotland still lacks an overall strategy for the development of aquaculture and its integration with other interests which enjoys the support of the public at large. The recently produced Strategic Framework for Scottish Aquaculture is a significant step forward, but achievement of some of the key action points within the specified timescales will require new resources to be found.
The maintenance, and in some areas improvement of water quality standards is fundamental to the prospects for expansion of aquaculture and the competitiveness of the shellfish farming industry in particular.
The case for bringing marine aquaculture installations within the scope of the statutory planning system has been argued since the early years of the industry's development. Whilst the principle of this was eventually accepted by the Government in 1997, the detailed framework is still to be established. Implementation of this framework is now a priority, not least because statutory planning powers will provide more of an incentive for local authorities to prepare planning guidance for marine aquaculture at local and regional level.
The aquaculture framework plans produced in Highland for individual sea lochs have pioneered this concept on a non-statutory basis and have been generally well received. However, integrated coastal zone plans which are multi-sectoral in scope have the potential to provide guidance over broader sea areas and to generate more synergy between interests. Practical support from the Scottish Executive for pilot projects in selected areas will be crucial in helping to advance this. More inter-agency working is needed on development of the national planning guidance for aquaculture and more liaison between the relevant local authorities will help in developing the coastal planning framework at local level.
USE OF COASTAL AND MARINE AREAS FOR THEIR MINERAL RESOURCES, POWER GENERATING CAPACITY, OR TRANSPORTATION CAPABILITIES.
2.4 OIL AND GAS
Almost all of Scotland's offshore oil and gas fields (apart from Beatrice) are well outwith the 12-mile zone. However, the industry has had a substantial development impact on parts of the mainland East coast and the Northern Isles. This has mainly been in the form of marine traffic and the development of harbour and transhipment facilities, rig fabrication and repair sites, pipelines and construction yards. The industry is of major strategic importance contributing about 85% of the UK's total primary energy production and supporting 6% of employment in Scotland.
The legacy of the first 30 years of offshore oil and gas development is an infrastructure of offshore installations, ports, terminals, pipelines and yards, a substantial engineering skill base, and a track record of technological innovation. Whilst an overall decline in production is envisaged, the potential of this infrastructure may be maximised through diversification (eg new opportunities offshore for renewable energy production) and decommissioning of installations.
The key coastal management issues for this sector relate to:
Other related issues are the management of coastal sites and the effect on employment as the industry diversifies, and possible impacts of an increase in coastal ship-to-ship transfer of oil. The complex permission process for developments that cross the coastal boundary creates an issue for the sector, including the issue of a landward licensing regime covering large areas of inshore waters (within "closing lines"). There are no international guidelines for the decommissioning of disused pipelines, and dealing with produced water and accumulated drill cuttings poses a challenge. Communication with the fishing industry remains problematic in the absence of a single representative body.
Appropriate mechanisms to address the challenges above include the use of Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) and a strategic approach to environmental management. There is also a need for integrated coastal zone plans at the local level which include consideration of the issues associated with the oil and gas industry. Existing partnerships between industry, government and other stakeholders need to be encouraged to promote discussion of current and emerging issues. In all areas of liaison, there is a need to identify the opportunities for data sharing. There is also potential for more dialogue with the marine renewable energy sector, with the aquaculture sector as it seeks to extend to areas further offshore, and with the tourism sector.
2.5 AGGREGATE AND MINERAL EXTRACTION
Most onshore mineral workings near the coast do not impact significantly on the marine environment. However, large-scale aggregate workings, such as the Glensanda superquarry in Morvern, involve product transport by sea. Economic constraints and accessibility factors (in terms of water depth and distance to shore) mean that almost all the offshore mineral resources which are worked are inside the 12-mile territorial sea limit.
Offshore aggregate and mineral extraction is an important and well-regulated marine industry off the coast of southeast England. But to date only a few short-term extraction projects have occurred in the waters around Scotland. These have mainly involved sand for beach replenishment or fill for land reclamation, although a wide range of minerals have been investigated. However, offshore dredging for aggregates is a potential growth area as existing onshore sources become exhausted and environmental pressure restricts the development of new mineral workings on land. At the moment, proposals are subject to the Government View procedure which is co-ordinated by the Scottish Executive. This procedure is currently under review.
The main impacts of exploiting offshore minerals include:
removal of seabed and benthic biota by dredging;
changes in bathymetry and seafloor topography;
disposal of waste materials;
increased shipping movements in the localities involved.
The main coastal management mechanisms which can address these issues are:
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) - the industry has begun to jointly undertake regional EIAs before developing new areas;
resource assessment, potentially linked to wider marine resource mapping initiatives;
development of a marine spatial planning system - to identify appropriate areas for offshore mineral extraction taking into account other interests.
The main requirements to allow progressive development in this sector are baseline data for the aggregate resource in Scotland out to 12 nautical miles and readily available Strategic Environmental Assessments. This will allow the adoption of a spatial planning system which incorporates the collated SEA information.
2.6 POWER GENERATION
Scotland is particularly well endowed in terms of its natural wind, wave and tidal energy resources. Wind speeds and wave regimes are highest off the Northwest seaboard, and tidal currents are most pronounced on the Argyll coast, the Pentland Firth and in the Northern Isles. However, many of these areas are currently disadvantaged by their remoteness from the high voltage grid which is concentrated in the Central Belt and on the East coast.
The technology of offshore wind farms is well developed, but as yet limited to relatively shallow waters. A number of types of wave energy generator are at full-scale testing stage, while tidal energy generators are at a slightly earlier prototype stage. Once these technologies are proven - and they could be much less intrusive than both onshore and offshore wind turbines - a wide range of subsea locations around the coast may become feasible for energy generation.
Offshore energy generation can build on Scotland's strong existing base of offshore infrastructure and engineering expertise. However, its development, particularly if the installations are large or are located close inshore, will also raise new issues. These may include impacts on navigation, wildlife, amenity, and sedimentary and hydrological processes. Development of renewable energy sources will, therefore, increase the need for spatial planning in the marine area to minimise conflicts of interest, particularly if pressure for this type of development becomes widespread.
The primary strategic issues are:
identification of strategic resource areas for developing offshore power generation via renewable sources and appropriate locations on the coast for cable landfall and connection to an extended national grid;
how to adapt the offshore oil and gas industry and its service infrastructure to develop alternative renewable energy sources and technology.
Related issues are:
development of an appropriate consents process for energy generation projects in coastal waters;
how to manage interactions between new energy generation projects in coastal waters and other interests to maximise the positive linkages and minimise conflicts;
the design of new offshore energy installations to deliver multiple benefits (eg artificial reef habitats, aquaculture facilities).
Priority elements of a coastal management framework to deal with proposals for new power generation schemes in the marine area are:
a centralised consents procedure for more major and distant offshore energy projects (eg beyond 12 nautical miles) - such a procedure is currently being developed;
a localised consents procedure (preferably under an extended statutory planning system rather than the 1989 Electricity Act) for energy generation projects on the coast and installations in inshore waters within 12 nautical miles - to ensure that the communities affected most directly by such developments can exercise a reasonable degree of control over what happens in their coastal and marine environment;
sector-specific locational and design guidance at national level for offshore energy developments;
integrated coastal zone plans at regional or local level to integrate renewable energy developments in inshore/nearshore waters with other interests.
2.7 PORTS AND MARINE TRANSPORTATION
Scotland's ports are the key economic nodes of the coastal zone. Two of them - Forth and Sullom Voe - are in the UK top five in terms of tonnage throughout. On the west coast, the Clyde remains a major port but its fortunes have declined since the UK's entry into the EEC and the resultant change in trading patterns. Bulk cargoes through Hunterston and oil shipped through BP's Finnart terminal now contribute a large percentage of the port's throughput. A number of other ports of varying size and importance are situated on the east coast and in the Northern Isles. All of these contribute towards local and national trading patterns. Aberdeen and Peterhead dominate the oil service industry with very large movements of vessels employed in this sector.
Fishing ports in Scotland, particularly Peterhead, are also important in UK terms. Recent moves to reduce the Scottish fishing fleet may however, have a detrimental effect upon these ports and the related land-based activities.
The major estuaries play host to significant road and rail bridge crossings. However, away from the Central Belt and the East coast, Scotland's mountainous terrain means that much of the road and rail network is sited, by necessity, on narrow coastal plains. In the Western and Northern Isles, rock causeways are a significant feature of the road network, linking islands and communities where, previously, ferry crossings were required.
The significance of ports and marine transportation for Scotland's coastal zone is primarily socioeconomic. They have a pivotal role in trade and local economies and provide transport links and services for dependent island and offshore communities as well as the marine industries. Maintaining the economic vitality of ports and managing their redevelopment as trading circumstances change are therefore important concerns. Port expansion and redevelopment can also however raise environmental issues because it often involves land reclamation or dredging and this may impact directly or indirectly on nature conservation interests or coastal defences. In addition there are increasing concerns in relation to the management of ballast water. Ballast water is essential to the safe and efficient operation of modern shipping, providing balance and stability to unladen ships. However, it may also pose a significant ecological, economic and health threat if it contains invasive marine life.
The estuarial ports have statutory control over large areas of Scotland's inshore waters. Even the smaller ports are strategically situated at river mouths or in sea inlets. As such, their development needs to be integrated with other interests. In planning for land reclamation, dredging, or the construction of road transhipment facilities or causeways to connect island groups, a careful balance needs to be sought between the socio-economic benefits and the long-term environmental effects.
Priority elements of a coastal management framework to deal with ports and marine transportation are:
flexibility - to allow ports to decide their own structures in response to their own markets - and more efficient mechanisms for processing port development and redevelopment proposals;
an integrating structure - to improve co-ordination between ports and other interests and to share appropriate research and development. Ports are willing to play their part in the delivery structures for ICZM provided they recognise the importance of economic development as well as environmental protection;
the use of "Eco Ports" to carry out environmental self-diagnosis;
systems to ensure that current developments on the draft IMO ballast water convention are given due weighting in development plans.
THE MANAGEMENT AND USE OF NATURAL AND BUILT HERITAGE
2.8 RECREATION AND TOURISM
In recreational terms, Scotland's coastal zone is one of the most attractive in Europe for its often wild and unspoilt landscape, its wildlife interest, and its opportunities for the more adventurous outdoor activities. However, the rugged appeal of the north and west of the country is only part of the attraction. The links golf courses, the beaches of the Solway Firth and the Outer Hebrides, and a generally rich historical legacy around the coast (everything from ancient castles and traditional fishing villages to the wrecks of Scapa Flow) are also important recreational assets for visitor and resident alike.
Tourism is one of Scotland's most important industries and it sustains many small businesses and remote rural and island communities. However, the market is an increasingly competitive one. In order to sustain the flow of visitors and to maximise the social and economic benefits of tourism and recreation, there needs to be a strong emphasis on quality. This is both in terms of the services provided, and in safeguarding the environment on which so much of the industry depends. Many factors which can influence the latter are beyond the sector's control, highlighting the need for a co-ordinated approach to planning and management of the coastal zone. Basic lack of facilities is also a problem, particularly in relation to footpath and cycleway routes and interpretation, although the proposed core-path plans under the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 will help to address this.
Key coastal management issues are:
the lack of integrated and strategic consideration of recreation on the coast;
the variable quality of tourist infrastructure, interpretation facilities and transport links and the lack of funding for their maintenance and development;
conflicts of interest which can arise in some areas between recreation and other uses of the coastal zone;
the importance of a high quality, natural environment to sustain tourism and recreational use;
the impact of climate change and sea level rise on beaches and recreation facilities close to the shore.
Conflicts between recreational interests and other uses of the coast and inshore waters tend to be localised, but are likely to increase as pressure to exploit inshore waters for commercial purposes intensifies and water-based recreation grows in popularity. The main issues relate to loss of access to the coast or recreational anchorages, pollution of beaches and coastal waters, and traffic congestion. Unsympathetic forms of development on the coast or in the near-shore zone can also affect landscape and amenity and this impacts on the quality of recreational experience. Coastal erosion and hard defences are an issue in some areas and sea level rise could exacerbate this.
Priority steps to address the issues above are:
development of criteria to identify and safeguard the most important areas for recreation and application of these so that key sites are properly recognised;
identification of suitable locations for the development of national-level facilities for specific activities;
identification of areas where positive management would help to resolve recreation-related conflicts and development of appropriate mechanisms for this;
promotion of innovative techniques for interpretation to enhance visitor experience;
promotion of sustainable tourism and responsible recreational use by raising awareness of best practice; codes of conduct; developing awards, training and accreditation schemes; developing sustainable transport systems;
funding for the maintenance and development of facilities.
2.9 MARINE AND COASTAL NATURAL HERITAGE
Scotland's marine and coastal natural heritage is extensive and complex. In the west, sheltered sea lochs such as Loch nam Madadh provide a stark contrast to the exposed and rocky shores encountered on the open coast. In the east, the coastline is indented by the Moray, Tay and Forth estuaries and is predominantly low-lying and dominated by dune-fringed sandy beaches. There are 800 islands in Scotland with features, including the towering cliffs of Orkney and Shetland and the broad machair plains of the Uists. Large sections of the coast have an international reputation for their landscape qualities of wildness, tranquillity and natural beauty.
The coast and inshore waters also support nationally and internationally important populations of marine mammals, such as grey and common seals and dolphins, and outstanding concentrations of seabirds. The deep sheltered waters in the sea lochs and the more exposed waters around the islands of the West coast are warmed by the North Atlantic Drift and have a rich biodiversity of seabed fauna and flora. The cold, shallower muddy North Sea has dense populations of invertebrates, key to supporting fish populations.
Both residents and visitors alike enjoy the dramatic coastal landscape and beautiful seascape of Scotland's coast and islands, and the qualities of wildness associated with some stretches of isolated coastline. This contributes to the quality of life and plays an important part in the Scottish tourist industry. Wildlife tourism alone now employs up to 3000 people. There are also other forms of employment which depend on the coastal natural heritage, eg management of local nature reserves and research, which contribute to the economy of many rural areas.
Whilst the value of Scotland's coasts for bird and animal life is fairly well known, the marine natural heritage is largely a hidden wealth. It is rich in variety and visually spectacular but remains largely concealed from most people's view. This confers a certain level of protection but it also makes it vulnerable because of out of sight can mean out of mind. The coastal zone and the seas that surround Scotland support a range of activities and industries and these human activities place demands on the coasts and seas affecting ecological integrity, landscape and seascape quality, and recreational value. The impact of these activities varies and even where it is significant is not always immediately obvious.
Key coastal management issues are:
climate change - including sea level rise and coastal squeeze;
decline in fish stocks and other marine and coastal biodiversity as a result of human resource demands;
land-based sources of marine pollution;
physical alteration or destruction of marine and terrestrial habitats (eg through land use change);
introduction of invasive marine species - by ships' ballast water, attached to ships' hulls and via other vectors;
lack of good spatial data and ecological information on marine resources and inter-linkages - this can lead to a risk of inadequate environmental appraisal.
Appropriate coastal management mechanisms to address these would be:
an overarching national policy framework and duty of care for the maritime environment;
better integration of sectoral strategies (eg for aquaculture, renewable energy Agriculture and Forestry) with NPPG 13 (Coastal Planning) and NPPG 14 (Natural Heritage);
preparation/updating of management prescriptions for all designated landscapes at national and regional level to provide clear management objectives;
adoption of the precautionary approach and the polluter-pays principle for regulating developments on the coast;
the use of locational guidance to direct development and activities to areas best suited;
Strategic Environmental Assessment for particular growth sectors - eg renewables, oil and gas;
encouragement of sustainable fisheries management and good coastal water quality;
closer management for protected areas and areas with special or complex requirements.
2.10 CULTURAL HERITAGE AND ARCHAEOLOGY
The cultural and archaeological heritage of Scotland's coastal zone embraces a vast range of human experience and artefact. It is integral to the nation's identity, a rich resource for education and research, and an important element of Scotland's attraction for tourists. Two of the four World Heritage sites in Scotland have a strong coastal component. These are St Kilda, where the designation was extended to include its cultural heritage, and the Heart of Neolithic Orkney which includes the coastal village site at Skara Brae and the rings of standing stones at Stenness and Brogar. More recent maritime heritage is exemplified by historic ships such as the Discovery in Dundee, the wrecks of Scapa Flow, and historic harbours like Stonehaven. Coastal castles like Dunottar, Eilean Donan, and Culzean have an enduring appeal, as do lighthouses like Kinnaird Head. Many local museums, such as those in Irvine and fishing villages like Anstruther, focus on the maritime heritage. Coastal walks such as the Fife Coastal Path often include archaeological monuments within their itineraries.
Many historic and archaeological sites are irreplaceable assets which need to be safeguarded or maintained in situ. Also, with over 80% of the coastline still inadequately surveyed for features of archaeological interest, many artefacts and sites probably remain to be discovered. Coastal development is covered by the planning guidelines and existing legislation. However, in the areas of coastline which have been surveyed it has become obvious that coastal erosion is one of the two main threats to the cultural heritage resource (the other is agriculture). 37% of the sites surveyed are considered vulnerable in this respect. A recent study of Scottish coastal cells identified longshore sediment transport as a key controlling factor in coastal erosion and has shown that there is a general deficit in new sediments to protect coastlines. The construction of defences to protect other coastal assets may not take account of the cultural heritage and can have an adverse effect on important remains. Marine dredging and submarine development can also destroy archaeological sites, but records of underwater archaeological sites are very patchy.
Coastal erosion and shoreline management in the vicinity of key archaeological and cultural heritage sites close to the coast is therefore a key coastal management issue. Better understanding is needed of the role of geomorphological processes in erosion of such sites. A lack of basic survey work to assess the extent of archaeological interest is the other major issue. Other relevant issues include the loss of vernacular building styles in some coastal areas due to weak development control or inadequate levels of grant aid to sustain the built heritage, and the design of port and harbour facilities. The development of small ports and harbours to increase their throughput capacity, or to improve their road access and security may sometimes reduce their value in built heritage and amenity terms.
Where they exist, local authority archaeologists can help to inform the preparation of Shoreline Management Plans. Most parts of Scotland's coastline, however, are not the subject of a voluntary SMP. Local Authority Development Plans are another key mechanism. Two codes of practice have been drawn up for dealing with development (the British Archaeologists and Developers Liaison Group (BALDG) Code of Practice, and the CBI Archaeological Investigations Code of Practice for Mineral Operators in Scotland). More survey work and research is required into the conservation needs of coastal and inshore submerged archaeological sites. This needs to be allied with systems for disseminating the information to the relevant communities and interest groups. Design briefs for development of coastal settlements with significant built heritage value would also make a valuable contribution to addressing the above issues.
USE BY THE MILITARY FOR OPERATIONAL BASES AND TRAINING
2.11 MILITARY ACTIVITY
The Ministry of Defence (MoD) has numerous sites in the coastal zone around Scotland, ranging from substantial naval bases, airfields and army training areas to storage depots, communication sites and test establishments. It is also a major employer. Clyde Naval Base alone generates 9100 jobs in Dumbartonshire (11% of the total in the area) and supports 2150 jobs in the community. For historical reasons, the majority of MoD landholdings lie within one mile of the high water mark. Coastal waters are used for both national and international military training exercises. These can occur within the 12-mile and 200-mile zones. These activities can have a tri-service involvement and include coastal landings and land-based exercises. In the inshore area they may require temporary exclusion of the public for safety reasons. However, the MoD actively encourages public access to its land where it is not in conflict with its primary use.
The wide range of activities that occur on the Defence Estates in Scotland have the potential to impact not just on the land, but on the marine environment as well. Examples include firing out to sea, dredging of shipping channels into a military port, or the maintenance of sea defences of a low lying coast. Due to the nature of MoD's core business, it is not always possible to neutralise all negative effects. Nevertheless it is MoD policy to reduce these wherever practical and to take account of external stakeholder concerns as part of that process. Many sites are now significant for their environmental and landscape considerations - partly due to the nature of the MoD use and the consequential access restrictions that apply.
As the sustainable development agenda grows in prominence, the MoD is increasingly incorporating sustainability objectives into its estates activities. A significant number of Natura designations include MoD land and its commitment to biodiversity sees it involved in projects such as Operation AUK at Cape Wrath and the annual MoD bird count. The publication "Walks on MoD land" demonstrates a positive commitment to open access; and, as responsible tenants, MoD funds were committed to meet the cost of restoration of part of the World Heritage site of St Kilda.
Key coastal management issues are:
management of public access in and around MoD land;
how to minimise the disruption, damage, or debris caused by field testing of military systems, eg weapon systems;
the impact of noise levels from military activity, eg low-flying near coastal communities or sonar disturbance to marine wildlife;
the safeguard, disposal or interpretation of military wrecks, remains or sites around the coastline.
Appropriate management mechanisms to address these will be:
liaison with internal and external stakeholders at a variety of levels from national to local, including Declarations of Intent with statutory bodies, and a Memorandum of Understanding with the Scottish Executive;
establishment of advisory Conservation Groups at all MoD sites with significant biodiversity or a designated site interest;
environmental impact assessments and sustainability appraisals for new equipment and activities in both the marine and terrestrial environments;
implementation of Environmental Management Systems and a programme of Integrated Rural Management Planning across the Defence Estate. This will include coastal management plans as an integral component of the EMS on relevant sites.
PHYSICAL MANAGEMENT OF THE COASTLINE AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER QUALITY
2.12 COASTAL DEFENCE AND SHORELINE MANAGEMENT
Coastal defences are the means to protect developed, usually urban coastal areas from the natural processes of erosion and tidal flooding. Around 6% (307km) of the Scottish mainland coastline has been modified for this reason. Studies in the 1970s showed coastal erosion to be most prevalent in Dumfries and Galloway, Shetland and the Western Isles. More recently, sites in Fife, Angus and Aberdeenshire have been noted for significant coastal retreat. Coastal flooding is predominantly associated with estuaries or when strong onshore winds combine with high tidal levels, eg at Largs and Kirkcaldy. Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) have been or are being completed for parts of the Moray Firth, part of the Berwickshire coast, Fife, East Lothian and Angus.
Although the direct value of spending on coastal defence and shoreline management to the Scottish economy is modest, the indirect value of these schemes in protecting property, industry and infrastructure is immense. However, coastal defences may damage the natural heritage through loss of habitat, landform or landscape character and by altering natural coastal sediment movements. Flooding in coastal areas can also be caused by the alteration of hydrology, reducing the ability of freshwater to flow to the sea. Added to the issues above, the possibility of sea-level changes is stimulating debate on land-use within the coastal zone. With a lack of co-ordinated decision making, local decisions on coastal defences can impact areas further along the coast. Strategic decision making is required to ensure a balanced approach across the whole of Scotland.
Key coastal management issues are:
poor understanding of flooding/erosion trends (including climate change effects) and ineffective prediction and management of erosion and flood events;
incomplete coverage of SMPs to provide a strategic assessment of erosion/flood risk and enable strategic planning of coastal and flood defences;
the need to adhere more rigorously to coastal planning guidance and prevent development in vulnerable areas;
the need to adopt more sustainable and flexible approaches to defence/flood management to safeguard natural heritage interests.
Climate change and sea level rise may increase the frequency, severity and impact of coastal flooding and erosion events in the future. But there is still great uncertainty about rates of change and the likely effects in different parts of Scotland. There is no single agency with responsibility for coastal protection and flood defence, no dedicated budget for flood defence, and many coastal defences are privately owned. This has led to a piecemeal approach to shoreline management. Some Scottish local authorities are starting to prepare SMPs and the development of such plans may usefully be extended to other vulnerable areas of coastline.
There is now a greater awareness of the risks which hard coastal defences may pose to natural coastal processes and habitats. The phenomenon of 'coastal squeeze' is leading to loss of habitats like saltmarsh, where rising sea levels are causing erosion, but the habitat is unable to migrate inland due to a fixed sea wall. Environmental policy and legislation in England and Wales now requires greater consideration of environmentally sensitive management options than before, eg beach recharge, managed realignment (moving defences inland) or relocation of assets at risk. However, Scottish policy guidance still fails to reflect this updated approach.
Key ways forward are to:
carry out co-ordinated research, monitoring and modelling of coastline trends, disseminate the results and implement effective flood prediction systems;
endorse the principle of strategic, planned management of erosion and flood risk; prepare SMPs based on natural divisions of the shoreline (sediment cells) for vulnerable areas and update existing plans;
integrate SMP considerations into the broader spatial planning framework taking into account appropriate development locations and the need for coastal/flood protection and considering alternatives;
ensure planning guidance contained in NPPG13 is followed (prevent development in areas where new defences would be needed) and ensure that revised policy guidance gives more emphasis to alternatives to hard engineering solutions;
raise awareness of dynamic processes and how to work with them, through information, training and best practice guidance;
identify and pursue sustainable funding for SMP production and alternative approaches to coastal defence (eg agri-environment funds for managed realignment).
2.13 WATER QUALITY
Good coastal water quality is important for the viability of industries based on the biological productivity of the inshore marine area. It is also important for public health, amenity and tourism. Scotland is fortunate in that much of its coastal waters and estuaries have excellent or good water quality as measured by SEPA and the National Marine Monitoring Plan (NMMP). Increasingly tight legislative control and substantial investment in treatment facilities have led to great improvements in the Forth and Clyde estuaries over the last 25 years. But the picture is not all rosy. There remain small areas of polluted waters in these estuaries and some associated tidal tributaries. In addition, the Ythan Estuary, north of Aberdeen, has suffered ecological impacts from nitrogen enrichment delivered to the estuary in river water, principally from diffuse agricultural sources.
Despite the general trend in improvement in the bacteriological quality of Scotland's bathing waters over the past few years, there remain long-term problems with some bathing waters, particularly in Ayrshire and Argyll. Scotland had the highest percentage of sewage-related debris of all areas in the UK in the 2000 Beachwatch survey. In addition, Atlantic coasts had a considerably greater density of litter items than North Sea coasts, and the indicator value for Atlantic coasts has increased year-on-year since 1996. Whilst major pollution incidents are fortunately rare, the development of offshore oil and gas reserves and coastal facilities for receiving oil (eg at Sullom Voe, Flotta, Nigg Bay, and the Firth of Forth) have increased the risk of both spills and chronic water pollution.
Impacts on water quality can result from shipping (ballast water introductions and hull transfers) oil and gas exploration, industrial and urban waste water treatment activities, agricultural run-off, fish farming, recreation and other sectors. However, improvements in monitoring and scientific understanding of the effects of pollutants have had a significant impact on water quality over time, as has improved public and political awareness of the effects of disposal in riverine, coastal and marine environments. Adoption and implementation of the new IMO Ballast Water Convention is a significant step towards safeguarding the biodiversity of the oceans.
Although only a tiny percentage of Scottish coastal waters are now classified as "Seriously Polluted", aesthetic impacts from sewage and non-sewage-related litter are the primary reasons for waters being classified as polluted. A failure to meet bacteriological standards, primarily due to discharges of sewage effluent, is the second most important cause of less-than-good water quality. In the absence of mechanisms to secure improvements, diffuse pollution sources (principally nutrients lost from agricultural and other rural land) may become the dominant cause of downgraded estuarine waters in Scotland by 2010. As pressure to expand existing marine cage fish farm sites and establish new ones increases, there is a need to consider water quality issues which might manifest themselves over a wider area. Implementation of the Water Framework Directive offers a major opportunity to integrate a range of regulatory activities affecting water quality through the establishment of large-scale River Basin District Plans.
A number of general mechanisms are required to safeguard good water quality and to secure improvement in areas where water quality is being adversely affected by human activities. Implementation of the relevant national sectoral strategies and obligations arising from EU directives and international agreements is key. There is also a need for continued investment in collection and treatment facilities for sewage and industrial effluents. Development of new sectoral strategies or partnership approaches may be the most effective means of addressing specific water quality problems. Continued development of monitoring arrangements for coastal and estuarine water quality is required to support these.
2.14 CROSS-CUTTING THEMES
Each of the sectoral assessments above gives a somewhat different perspective on the issues and prospects in Scotland's coast and inshore waters. The SCF Strategy begins from the premise that the various sectoral interests have the right to expect to continue with legitimate uses of the coast and its resources. What the Strategy offers, however, is the opportunity to create a more integrated approach to the management of these resources. Managing coastal and inshore activities in the traditional way, with each sector being covered by separate arrangements, has resulted in a complex regulatory regime and one which many say is not working for the benefit of either the environment or its long term economic use. In short, we are failing to deliver sustainable use of the marine resource of Scotland by failing to work in an integrated way. Review of the sectoral assessments reveals a number of key themes which the Strategy should seek to address.
The first is the need for a more strategic approach to coastal management. All the sectoral papers identified this requirement, particularly for a strategic approach which anticipates future patterns of activity and potential consequences for the marine and coastal environment and which provides a long-term decision-making framework.
Another key element identified by almost all sectors is the need for a clear spatial planning framework to allocate space for different activities, where there is a likelihood of competing demands. Similarly, mechanisms for integration are seen as lacking - between and within sectors, geographical regions and at all the main levels of decision-making. Finally, several of the sectoral analyses point to better leadership and committed finance as necessary components of a more strategic approach.
The third major theme that emerges from the sectoral analyses is the need to take greater account of, and promote awareness of, the value and resources of Scotland's coast. The value of our coastal resources, in terms of both monetary and non-monetary economics, is not fully appreciated. Also, there is a lack of awareness of, and attention to, cross-sectoral opportunities and threats, especially those which operate over a long time scale. A range of responses are necessary to safeguard, promote and interpret Scotland's coastal resources and heritage.
The need to work with natural processes was identified by several sectors with interests in managing assets on the coast. These range from port facilities, coastal defences and golf courses, to archaeological and nature conservation interests. The full implications of trying to manage coastal assets and resources within the constraints of natural dynamic processes need to be addressed by the Strategy, while also taking into account the effects of climate change.
Most of the sectoral analyses point to the need to encourage effective and appropriate stakeholder participation at all levels. This means including local communities, the wider public, specific sectoral interests, statutory and non-statutory representatives and government in the management process. The benefits of using existing networks, such as local coastal partnerships and industry liaison groups is also highlighted as important for the success of the Strategy.
Several sectoral papers, from both industrial/ commercial and scientific agency perspectives, identified the need to secure better integrated research, monitoring and evaluation for Scotland's coast. Lack of integration in the field of research is resulting in gaps, overlaps and a failure to make best use of available data and information.
RESEARCH
Much co-ordination of research occurs but it encompasses a wider range of interest and priorities than just for Scotland. One of the difficulties is establishing whether there are genuine "Scottish" issues which are distinct from those relating to the UK or European strategic requirements.
ISSUES FOR SCOTLAND?
What research is needed to implement obligations?
What research is needed to develop new policy areas?
Can we use existing mechanisms to target research more effectively?
DATA AND INFORMATION
Good data and information are crucial for decision making. It is generally accepted that collection is difficult and expensive, spatial and temporal standards vary depending on intended use and commercial restrictions can hamper use.
A number of initiatives have sought to address data issues and problems with data and standards.
ISSUES FOR SCOTLAND?
Identifying areas of data outside the Marine Environmental Data Action Group (MEDAG) remit.
Are Scottish bodies sufficiently engaged in the existing initiatives, eg IACMST, ICZMap, UK DEAL?
Ensuring inter-operability of data.