Scottish Government

BRIEFING NOTE FOR THE STRATEGIC GROUP ON WOMEN

By Esther Breitenbach
June 2003

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH REVIEWS ON WOMEN'S AND GENDER ISSUES IN SCOTLAND

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This paper, summarises and discusses key points arising from recent research reviews on women's and gender issues in Scotland, and includes the following:

• A brief outline of research reviews in recent years;
• A brief summary of the position with regard to research on key policy areas and themes discussed at the Strategic Group on Women meetings;
• An outline of Scottish Office and Scottish Executive research on gender equality since 1998;
• Discussion of key points arising from consideration of developments in research, and recommendations.

Research reviews on gender issues

Since 1994 there have been three reviews of research on gender equality issues in Scotland, the first two funded by the EOC and published in 1994 and 1997 (Brown, Breitenbach, and Myers; Myers and Brown). The third was commissioned by the Equal Opportunities Committee of the Scottish Parliament and was published in October 2002 (Innes). In addition to these, Gender Audits, reviewing the position of women in Scotland were produced from 1993-2000. The Scottish Office produced a briefing on an overview of research on women's issues in Scotland in 1999, with the aim of disseminating more widely key findings of the EOC research reviews and other publications.

What the research reviews demonstrate is there is at the same time a growing volume of research on gender issues in Scotland (though this is primarily about women, rather than about men or making gender comparisons), and continuing problems with significant gaps in research, and lack of work that synthesises research in areas related to policy development which may be deemed to be significant to gender equality. In addition, there is a continuing issue of how effectively research is being disseminated, with currently no mechanism existing for regular dissemination or discussion of research amongst the gender equality (and wider equality) research community, and amongst researchers and policy makers.

The most recent research review was conducted by Sue Innes for the Equal Opportunities Committee of the Scottish Parliament. The purpose of the review was to 'provide a framework for work on gender issues in the medium to long term, for the Equal Opportunities Committee. In addition, it was also intended that the review would facilitate the development of topics for inquiry and research amongst other parliamentary committees'. It may be assumed then that the new parliament will in some way take forward recommendations made in the report. The Committee also wished to facilitate exchange of information between groups and organisations carrying out work on gender equality issues, especially where they lacked resources to do such work themselves.

There were a number of areas excluded from Innes' review, because of time constraints. These are health and gender inequalities, evaluations of awareness raising campaigns such as Zero Tolerance, and research on men as perpetrators of domestic violence. Health is however acknowledged to be an important area, particularly in relation to gendered poverty and disadvantage, and to caring roles. Unlike the previous EOC commissioned reviews, the report by Innes does not provide an evaluation of methodologies used by the research studies summarised, and therefore does not provide an assessment of the validity of the findings.

The key conclusions of the report were:

• There is more interest in gender research than previously, and more integration of gender into social research, but still many areas where there is little or no research or understanding of gender issues;
• The quality of research is variable, tends to description rather than explanation, and tends to be small-scale;
• There is a lack of dissemination and follow-through in many areas of research;
• There is little work discussing policy interventions on gender equality by the Scottish Parliament or policy developments in committees of the Scottish Parliament;
• The report identifies four broad areas emerging from the review as priorities: poverty; violence against women; the under-representation of women in decision-making and public life; and work/family balance. The report also notes that urban/rural differences and issues of multiple inequality were relevant to all priority issues;
• The report also noted a range of areas where there was very little work identified: those relating to areas of the Scottish Parliament's responsibility - criminal justice (with the exception of domestic abuse), family law, housing and access to services, social care, environment policy, community regeneration and planning, sport and leisure, multiple inequality; and those relating to other aspects of contemporary Scottish society - the media and representation, cultural and national identity, masculine identities and male experience of social change, families and relationships between men and women, demography and social change, and gender inequality in age.

Many of these points concur with the conclusions of the previous EOC commissioned research reviews, and emphasise the continuing deficiencies of research on gender issues in Scotland, despite the growing volume of work.

Policy areas discussed by Strategic Group on Women

This section of the paper provides a very brief summary of the position with regard to research on gender issues in Scotland relevant to key policy areas discussed at the Strategic Group on Women, to policy mechanisms such as mainstreaming, and to evaluation of initiatives and/or policies.

Employment and pay

Employment and pay are major areas of gender research in the UK in general, but there is relatively little empirical work on these issues in Scotland. What research there is confirms that the general pattern of gender inequalities in employment and pay in the UK also exists in Scotland, and in certain respects suggest a greater degree of inequality. For example, the gender pay gap is greater in Scotland than in England and Wales; there are low numbers of women who are self-employed, and barriers still exist to women running their own businesses including barriers of attitudes, discrimination, problems with access to finance, and poor support. Scottish based research tends to be about women in the professions, rather than low paid women workers. Though recently there has been a growth of interest in family friendly policies, there is little data on availability and take-up, and there is no research which specifically discusses the Scottish Parliament's responsibilities in this area.

Research carried out elsewhere in the UK, which has often involved analysis of UK and/or GB data on employment and pay, has helped to identify the range of factors that contribute to women's disadvantaged position at work. These include: the impact of interruptions to employment for childbearing and caring; the effect of part-time work on women's pay and career prospects; lack of flexibility in working hours; gender segregation by industry and by occupation; and discrimination. In addition it is clear that the pattern of gender inequality varies within different sectors of the economy, and that in some areas there is more progress than in others. For example, the continuing failure of Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) industries to retain women science graduates has been ascribed in part to work cultures hostile to women and relatively inflexible in their working hours and practices.

In her report, Innes notes that better analysis of data from UK research, and of Scottish figures, would be beneficial. Though this would be an improvement, arguably it does not go nearly far enough. An economic development strategy that hopes to strengthen the Scottish economy is seriously weakened by the failure to understand the ways in which women's labour is underutilised in different ways in different sectors across the economy.

Poverty and social exclusion

It is widely recognised in discussions of poverty in the UK and in Scotland that women are at greater risk of poverty than men, and are likely to remain in poverty for longer periods than men. Two groups particularly vulnerable to poverty, and which are predominantly made up of women, are lone parents and pensioners. It is also widely recognised that women's disadvantaged position in the labour market, due to domestic and caring responsibilities, contributes to their poverty, both while of working age and when they are older, since interruptions to employment and low pay mean that they are unable to build up an adequate pension in retirement. As in the case of employment and pay there is little empirical research on gender and poverty in Scotland, though groups such as the Scottish Poverty Information Unit, the Scottish Low Pay Unit and Oxfam have consistently commented on the position of women, and provided analyses of data that indicate women's disadvantaged position. It has been argued by the EOC and others that any definition of social exclusion must recognise gender inequality as a core factor, and that this recognition should be integral to strategies for tackling social exclusion.

It is also recognised that women often play a significant role in regeneration in deprived communities, though again this area is little researched. However, the small number of studies that have been carried out recently in Scotland make clear recommendations for mainstreaming gender in social inclusion strategies. In general, as Innes' review found, gender inequality needs to be better linked to analyses of poverty, and integrated in social inclusion strategies.

Education

Though education is an area in which much gender disaggregated data is published, this tends to be confined to a relatively small number of themes, especially attainment and subject choice. There is a lack of systematically collected evidence to underpin policies on gender differences.

Innes notes that the existence of research centres in education has been important in enabling a greater volume of research on gender issues to have been carried out than exists in other fields. While gendered subject choice remains a matter of concern there is no in-depth study of this, and in particular there is no concern with under-representation of boys in languages equivalent to the long-standing concern about the under-representation of girls in science, engineering and technology subjects. Under-achievement of boys has been identified as in need of research and intervention, though less attention is paid to poorly achieving girls and the consequences of this for their life choices. However, it has been found that gender segregation is particularly marked for pupils who leave school with few qualifications. Differences in attainment for both sexes by social class have been found to be more significant for inequality and under-achievement than gender differences.

Priorities recommended by Innes for research in education are studies which investigate the inter-relationship of gender, ethnicity and class, and how these relate to attainment and opportunities. In general more detailed qualitative research which goes beyond the quantitative data and seeks to provide explanations is required. An important question is what role might education play in translating girls' success in educational attainment into an equivalent success in employment and in public life.

Childcare and other forms of care

Given the development of childcare strategies and provision throughout the UK, this has been an area in which there has also been a growth in research, covering areas such as the impact of childcare on pre-school children, parents' demand for and use of childcare, flexible working practices and work/life balance. Within Scotland there has been a growth of research in this area too, though it is relatively limited.

Work on childcare in Scotland has identified the links between lack of childcare, and family poverty and deprivation, and indicates that childcare is still seen as a service for which parents are financially responsible, despite changes in government policy on childcare. Research has also found that childcare work remains gendered and low-paid. Childcare in rural areas has been investigated in a number of studies, and the importance of recognising diversity in women's experience in rural communities has been emphasised.

To date the development and implementation of the National Childcare Strategy in Scotland has not been the subject of research. However, a number of research projects have indicated that there is still an unmet demand for childcare, and that current formal provision does not necessarily meet parents' requirements in terms of quality, flexibility, or affordability.

There is little research on gender and informal care of adults in Scotland. Yet gender is significant to caring, in terms of who is cared for, and who does the caring, and the type of care provided. Given significant policy development in this area in Scotland in the provision of free personal care, this would seem a key area for future research.

Decision-making in political and public life

Gender balance in political institutions has been the focus of a number of research studies, including representation at Westminster, in local government, and the Scottish Parliament. This has indicated the kind of barriers that continue to confront women who put themselves forward as candidates for elections, and has debated strategies that may be pursued to enhance women's representation. Research studies have also analysed the impact women have on policy formation at different levels of government, whether as political representatives, officials in local government, or activists in women's organisations.

Within this context campaigns to increase women's representation and to ensure that equal opportunities principles were integral to the Scottish Parliament are deemed to have had some success. Similarly campaigns to get the issue of domestic violence higher up the political agenda, in both local government and the Scottish Parliament, are also deemed to have had some success.

Emerging findings from research on the impact of increased women's representation in the Scottish Parliament suggest that the new gender balance is having an impact both on how politics is conducted, and on the salience of issues affecting women. However, it is difficult to separate out what is contributed by women politicians themselves, and what is contributed by the new institutional machinery, which has also provided better access to both politicians and civil servants for women's organisations and activists. Although the level of women's representation in the Scottish Parliament has achieved the relatively high level in international terms of 39.5%, at local government it remains at the much lower level of 22%. Hence it is suggested that continued monitoring of and research on women's representation at various levels of government remains crucial.

With respect to public appointments, an area in which governments throughout the UK, including the Scottish Executive, have set targets for increasing women's representation, data are published on an annual basis, but there is no published research on gender and public appointments in Scotland.

Violence against women

There has been a growing volume of research on violence against women in Scotland in recent years. This has tended to concentrate on two areas: on campaigning and awareness raising and on the political processes involved in this; and on service provision for women who experience domestic abuse. A key element of development of services for women experiencing violence has been the existence of self-help groups such as Women's Aid and Rape Crisis, and the development of such organisations in Scotland has also been recorded by researchers.

As noted above, campaigns such as Zero Tolerance are judged to have made an impact both in terms of getting the issue of violence against women higher up the political agenda, and in educating the public in general. They have also had the impact of increasing demand for refuge places and other services. Research on service provision has noted the growth of multi-agency strategies at local level, bringing together relevant service providers such as police, social work, housing, and health services. It has also underlined the variability of provision across Scotland, as well providing examples of good practice. Some attention has also been paid by researchers in this field to the needs of specific groups, including women in rural areas, and minority ethnic women.

There has also been some research on men as victims of domestic abuse, and on men as perpetrators. Though the treatment of rape in the Scottish courts was the subject of research some years ago, there is little recent research despite a steep decline in conviction rates.

Multiple discrimination issues

It has been a persistent theme in research reviews that multiple discrimination issues have received very little attention i.e. that very little research has looked at the interaction of gender and ethnicity, disability, age, sexual orientation, or urban and rural differences. This is despite the fact that is widely recognised that such interactions are likely to compound the disadvantage and discrimination experienced by the particular groups concerned. However, there has recently been some slight improvement here.

The recent audit of research on minority ethnic issues in Scotland commissioned by the Scottish Executive included material on gender; a small number of reports on sexual orientation issues have been published; and there have been a number of reports in recent years in which issues for women in rural areas have been discussed. These include work on poverty and deprivation in rural areas, the reconciliation of work and family life, the position of minority ethnic people in rural areas, childcare, domestic violence, and transport. The Scottish Executive has also published a report of a seminar on women's issues in rural areas.

Research examining the interaction between gender and disability seems to be a particularly neglected area. Age is much more frequently the focus of studies and/or a variable in studies, yet there are few studies that look at the interaction of gender and age.

Policy mechanisms

Mainstreaming is the approach to equality adopted by the Scottish Executive, and a number of researchers in Scotland have carried out work in this area. Comparative research on mainstreaming equal opportunities has helped inform the development of the Scottish Executive's equality strategy. Other projects have addressed the application of mainstreaming approaches to particular areas of policy and/or have developed guidance on how to do this. Innes comments that this research on mainstreaming is not well enough known, and that these mechanisms are not well enough understood. More research, debate and dissemination in this field is recommended.

A further dimension of the mainstreaming approach is illustrated by the work of the Engender Women's Budget Group with the Scottish Executive. The Group has put the case for a gender impact analysis of all public expenditure in Scotland, and has carried out research on the budgetary process in Scotland.

Innes also notes in her report that an article reviewing progress on equality policies over the past 25 years calls for a better resourced and more autonomous equality body in Scotland, and that the new political and legal framework requires a debate on the type of structures that can best deliver equality in Scotland, a debate that is particularly pertinent in the context of proposals for a single equality body for Great Britain.

Evaluation of policy initiatives

In general there is little work evaluating policy development or initiatives on gender equality, or identifying areas where it would be useful. There is also little research examining the work of the Scottish Parliament in this respect. Innes notes that there is surprisingly little research on or discussion of how a Parliament that has made a commitment to equality should advance gender equality, in its own practices and in Scottish society, a question that could usefully be informed by research, including comparative research.

As indicated above, one initiative for advancing gender equality is that of engendering budgets. Descriptions of the work of the Engender Women's Budget Group are available, but this does not yet provide concrete examples of gender-sensitive budgeting in terms of shifts in policy priorities, though it offers insights into how concerns about gender inequalities can be advanced.

Research reviews have indicated a number of areas in which there are judged to be examples of good practice, or where policy approaches are thought worth replicating. However, a general limitation of such reporting is that initiatives have not been rigorously evaluated. Notable exceptions to this are the 'Zero Tolerance' and 'Respect' campaigns, which have been accompanied by evaluation exercises and where there is therefore evidence of their impact.

Areas which have been put forward as examples of success and/or good practice include the following:

• Campaigns to increase women's representation;
• Research on local government has suggested that equal opportunities have been successfully maintained and developed both in relation to employees and to service users, though the overall picture across local government is varied and patchy;
• Pay audits are seen as a useful measure;
• Examples of consultation exercises with women and women's organisations;
• Examples of family friendly policies;
• Examples of innovative childcare projects in rural areas;
• Equal opportunities teaching in schools and its impact on young people's attitudes and aspirations;
• Imaginative and innovative measures to enhance transport;
• Examples of multi-agency working and of service provision for women experiencing domestic violence.

Research on women's and gender issues commissioned by the Scottish Office/Scottish Executive

There have been a number of developments which have led to improvements in the production of data and research on women's and gender issues by government in Scotland. Specific measures to do this were initiated in 1998 in the pre-devolution period, and the Scottish Executive has taken this forward in various ways.

In 1998 a Women's Issues Research Consultant ¹ was appointed for an initial period of two years, and this was extended for a further year. A Women's Issues Research Advisory Group was set up to advise the Consultant, and this group met on a regular basis up till December 2001. As part of her remit, the consultant was responsible for the production of a number of research findings, commissioning research, organising research seminars, and for negotiation with other research branches and statisticians in the Scottish Executive over mainstreaming gender in research and the improvement of gender disaggregated statistics. At the time of the creation of the Equality Unit in 1999, the consultant became part of the unit, with a remit covering a range of equality issues, and resources were also made available to have a research input into the analysis of the responses to the consultation on the equality strategy, and for a consultant to be commissioned to run a series of seminars and produce reports on these. In 2002 an Equalities Research Branch was created.

The Government Statistical Service for the UK in general has made a commitment to the improvement of gender disaggregated statistics, and the Central Statistics Unit in the Scottish Executive has produced a number of publications in line with this commitment. In addition the new Scottish Household Survey launched in 1999 has improved data gathering and analysis on gender issues.

While there is no doubt that there has been an improvement in the provision of gender disaggregated data and that there has been more research on gender issues than previously, progress on this has been somewhat uneven. In 1999 the first Women's Issues Research Findings was issued, providing an overview of research on women's issues in Scotland, and giving a commitment for the WIRAG to develop a programme of seminars and meetings to pool information held by different groups and to identify specific areas where further research is required. It was also stated that on the basis of these developments and following wider consultation, a strategy for research on women's issues would be launched after a few months. While a series of seminars did subsequently take place, and while the WIRAG endorsed a checklist drawn up by the EOC on mainstreaming gender in research, and had lengthy discussions about the development of a research agenda on women's issues, a strategy for research on women's issues has yet to be developed.

Currently the major focus of the work of the Equalities Research Branch is on equality issues other than gender, though it is worth commenting that much of this represents a significant development and has been innovative in its approach to the engagement of users and in tackling difficult methodological issues such as how to gather data on sexual orientation. Work is also ongoing on the development of a resource on equality research in order to facilitate mainstreaming.

(See Appendix A for a list of research publications on women's and gender issues published by the Scottish Office/Scottish Executive since 1998).

Discussion and recommendations

The repetition of research reviews (of which there have been three in less than 10 years) has entailed repetition of the same conclusions about continuing weaknesses and problems, despite the growing volume of research. These are that: there continue to be key gaps, with often little research in areas of major policy interest; many studies are small-scale; research is not well disseminated; research is not followed through in terms of application to policy or further research identified as necessary; much research tends to be descriptive rather than providing explanations for gender inequalities and how these may change. Even in fields which appear to be well served, such as education and employment, there are considerable limitations.

For example, reviews have noted that the main concentration of research on women in Scotland was on employment and education, and this remains the case. This should not be taken to mean, however, that these areas are adequately covered. While official statistics are regularly published, there is a dearth of empirical research for example on gendered patterns of participation in the labour market, or in particular sectors, industries, or occupations. This is in marked contrast to the large volume of research that has been carried out in English Higher Education institutions, including a range of quantitative studies (often analysing UK or GB data), and qualitative studies in specific sectors or regions in England. The track record of academics in Wales is also better, with a number of researchers in Welsh institutions contributing to this research, though not always focussing on empirical research in Wales, as illustrated, for example, by the papers presented to the UK Gender Research Forum on the Gender Pay and Productivity Gap in November 2002. In relation to labour market issues, Innes' report identifies 'work/family balance' as a priority. While more research on this topic would be welcome, a much more comprehensive approach is needed to reviewing and developing research on gender and the labour market in Scotland. It is difficult to see how an effective economic development strategy can developed for Scotland without this.

One trend that does emerge clearly from Innes' review is that there is much interest in the issue of women's political representation, and the impact of increased representation of women. New research, from which findings are beginning to emerge, suggests that there are benefits to women of increased representation in the new institutions created by devolution, and of the 'embedding' of equal opportunities within the new institutions, such as the Equal Opportunities Committee in the Scottish Parliament. This research suggests that generally there is an important process of change going on, though more detailed findings from major research projects are still in the process of being analysed. Recent writing on this theme however provides recognition of real achievements, and there is discussion in the literature of the factors thought to have contributed to these changes. This does not mean that barriers and problems do not continue to exist, and research also identifies areas for further research or continuing scrutiny e.g. the issue of selection of candidates, and tracking developments in women's representation at various levels of government.

Another trend that emerges clearly in the development of work on domestic abuse. The growing volume of research on this issue is indicative both of the success of campaigns to get domestic violence higher up the political agenda, and to get more commitment to tackling the issue in terms of the development of a strategic approach and more resources. This is also an area in which there are a number of studies relevant to policy development and service provision, and in which there is also ongoing research related to service provision.

There are areas where research indicates major changes occurring in respect of gender equality over the longer term. In Scotland research has commented on and analysed changes in political representation, in education, and in strategies for tackling domestic abuse, in particular. While employment, patterns of health behaviours, and family relationships, are also clearly areas in which there have been significant changes with respect to gender, these areas have been less researched in a Scottish context. In general policy development in Scotland is insufficiently gender aware, and mainstreaming needs to be further developed. However, the growing volume of research in some areas tends to make clear advances which have occurred, and how significant these may be. It also helps to identify the processes at work, and suggests examples of good practice, though only a limited number, and few which have been subject to rigorous evaluation.

An important point to make is that reviewing research on gender issues is not the same thing as a review of gender research relevant to a specific policy area or policy problem. General research reviews, while useful, are likely to continue to come up with similar findings even where the volume of research is increasing, unless there is a significant change in the approach to and resourcing of research. It is likely to be much more useful in terms of informing policy development to conduct research reviews and/or commission new research that is specifically framed in terms of explicit policy goals designed to promote gender equality.

The research reviews indicate frequent instances of inadequate or inconsistent data, or the need to develop appropriate data for mainstreaming purposes, or to ensure that this is done systematically in the context of policy implementation. A related point is that evaluation frameworks for gender impacts of policies remain extremely underdeveloped. Again the elaboration of explicit policy goals is likely to facilitate the development of appropriate data gathering that can be integrated into policy implementation.

In the immediate term, a number of suggestions may be put forward as options for making better use of existing research, and for the development of a more strategic approach to gender research relevant to policy making:

• Make use of research that tracks major changes and achievements, both pre-dating the Scottish Parliament and since the inception of the Parliament, to inform policy making and the wider public of these developments;
• Identify key policy areas, and commission research reviews relevant to clearly specified policy goals, with the purpose of synthesising relevant research from a range of disciplines, to identify significant gaps (if any), and to assess the implications of such research for policy development;
• Identify key policy areas where mainstreaming can be more effectively developed by integrating gender analysis of data and research e.g. economic development, social inclusion, housing, criminal justice;
• Develop monitoring and evaluation frameworks to assess the impact on gender inequalities as an integral part of policy making;
• Develop methods for evaluation of initiatives and policies that can be promoted as good practice;
• Develop more effective dissemination strategies, including regular fora for discussion of gender research in Scotland.

Esther Breitenbach
June 2003

References

Brown, A, Breitenbach, E and Myers, F (1994 ) Equality Issues in Scotland: A Research Review, Manchester: Equal Opportunities Commission.

Innes, S (2002) Literature Review of Research on Gender Inequality in Scotland, 7 ^th Report of the Equal Opportunities Committee of the Scottish Parliament: available at

http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/official_report/cttee/equal-02/eor02-07-01.htm

Myers, F and Brown, A (1997) Gender Equality in Scotland: a Research Review Update, Manchester: Equal Opportunities Commission.

Appendix A

List of Scottish Office/Scottish Executive publications on women's and gender issues

Scottish Office (1998) Women's Issues: A Scottish Office Progress Report.

Breitenbach, E, (1999) Research on Women's Issues in Scotland: an Overview, Women's Issues Research Findings, No 1: Scottish Office Central Research Unit.

Myers, F (1999) Women in Decision-making in Scotland: A Review of Research, Women's Issues Research Findings, No 2: Scottish Office Central Research Unit.

Scott, G, et al (2000) Women's Issues in Local Partnership Working, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit.

Scottish Executive (2000) Equality in Scotland: Guide to Data Sources, Central Statistics Unit.

Reid Howie Associates (2000) Women and Transport: Moving Forward, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit.

Mackay, F and Bilton, K (2000 ) Learning from Experience: Lessons in Mainstreaming Equal Opportunities, Research Findings, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit.

Kay, H (2000) Women and Men in the Professions in Scotland, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit.

Scottish Household Survey Bulletin 5 (2001), Scottish Executive/National Statistics.

Men and Women in Scotland, A Statistical Profile,(2001) Scottish Executive Central Statistics Unit.

Samuel, E (2001) Equality Statistics, Report of Conference for Users of Equality Statistics, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit.

Mackay, F and Bilton, K (2002 ) Equality Proofing Procedures in Drafting Legislation: International Comparisons, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit.

Samuel, E (2002) Researching Women in Rural Scotland, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit.

Social Focus on Women and Men, (2002) Scottish Executive/National Statistics.

There are also other publications that contain discussion of gender issues, though gender is not the main focus of the research e.g. Audit of Research on Minority Ethnic Issues in Scotland, and Sexual Orientation Research Phase 1: A Review of Methodological Approaches.

For copies of reports and/or further information about Scottish Executive research reports see www.scotland.gov.uk/socialresearch

Footnote

¹ The author of this paper held this post from April 1998 to January 2001.